Systems Engineering of Phased Arrays

Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
Part I
System Engineering Activities 1
1 The Systems Engineering Process and Its Application
to Phased Arrays 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Methodological Reductionism 4
1.3 The Systems Engineering Approach 6
1.4 The Three-Phase Process 7
1.5 Phase 1: Concept Development 8
1.5.1 Needs Analysis 10
1.5.2 Alternacives Exploration 11
1.5.3 Trade Studies and Baseline Selection 14
1.5.4 New Technology Validation 16
1.5.5 Risk Management Plan 16
1.5.6 Other Concept Development Activities 20
1.6 Phase II: Engineering Development 20 2.6 Polarization Diverse and Wideband Arrays 51
1.6.1 Typical Engineering Activities for Phased Arrays 21
Conclusions 51
1.6.2 Antenna Development 21
2.7
1.6.3 Integrated Circuit Development 21 2.8 Problems 51
1.6.4 T /R Module Development 22
52
1.6.5 Thermal Design and Heat Transfer Development 22
References
1.6.6 Beamformer Development 22
3 Use Cases for Phased Arrays 55 1.6.7 Digital Receiver/Exciter Development 22
1.6.8 Mechanical Structure Development 23 3.1 Introduction to Use Cases 55
1.6.9 Production Plan Development 23
1.6.10 Acceptance Testing 23 3.2 High-Altitude Platform Station 56
1.6.11 Other Functions 23 3.2.1 Introduction to HAPS 56
1.6.12 Outputs from Engineering Development 23 3.2.2 HAPS System Description with Key Challenges and
Benefits 57
1.7 Phase III: Post-Development 24
3.2.3 HAPS Examples and Summary 60
1.7.1 Production 24
1.7.2 Deployment 24 3.3 Medical Applications of Phased Arrays 60
1.7.3 Operation and System Maintenance 24 3.3.1 Introduction to Medical Phased Arrays 60
1.7.4 Eventual Decommissioning 24 3.3.2 Medical Arrays System Description with Key Challenges
and Benefits 61
1.8 Conclusions 25
3.3.3 Medical Phased Array Examples and Summary 61
1.9 Problems 25 3.4 Phased Array for 5G MIMO Broadband 62
References 25 3.4.1 Introduction 5G Broadband Phased Arrays 62
3.4.2 5G Phased Array System Description with Key
2 Phased Array System Architectures 29 Challenges and Benefits 63
3.4.3 5G Phased Array Examples and Summary 64
2.1 Introduction to Phased Array System Architectures 29
3.5 Airborne Radar for Fighter Aircraft 65
2.2 Phased Array System Basics 33
3.5.1 Introduction to Military Phased Arrays 65
2.3 Phased Array Architectures 40 3.5.2 Airborne Phased Array System Description with Key
2.3.1 Passive Phased Arrays 40 Challenges and Benefits 65
Airborne Phased Array Examples and Summary 66
2.3.2 AESA 41 3.5.3
2.3.3 AESA with Phase Shifters at Each Element and at Each 3.6 Conclusions 67
Subarray 42
2.3.4 Element-Level Digital Beamforming 46 3.7 Problems 67
2.3.5 Other Methods 47 References 68
2.4 Array Architectures for T /R Module Integration 48
4 Phased Array Conce~t Develo~ment Exam~le 71
2.5 Array Beamforming Options 49 71
4.2 Needs Assessment- A Common Starting Point 72 5.10 Reflector Antenna 112
4.3 Technology Opportunities 73 5.11 Vivaldi Tapered Slotline Antenna 115
4.4 System Architecting 73 5.12 Low-Profile Vivaldi Tapered Slot Antennas 118
4.5 The SAI Method for New System Concept Development 74 5.13 Tightly Coupled Dipole Array 121
4.6 Application of the Modified SAI Method to Broadband 5.14 Conclusions 122
Access for Small to Medium-Size Public Venues 75
4.6.1 Step 1: Determine Value Proposition and Constraints 76
5.15 Problems 123
4.6.2 Step 2: Identification of Potential Perturbations 77 References 125
4.6.3 Step 3: Identify Desired Ilities 77
4.6.4 Step 4: Generate Function Alternatives 78 6 Transmit/Receive Modules 133
4.6.5 Step 5: Generate Architecture Options 79
4.6.6 Step 6: Select the \"Best\" Architecture Option 80
6.1 Introduction 133
4.7 Conclusions 81 6.2 Technical Challenges Often Faced in T /R Module
Development 133
4.8 Problems 81 6.2.1 Heat Transfer 134
References 83 6.2.2 Signal Integrity 134
6.2.3 Integration with Other Functions 135
Part II 6.2.4 Materials Compatibility 135
Detailed Development Activities 85 6.2.5 Electromagnetic Coupling 136
5 Antenna Element Technology Options
6.3 General Description of the T /R Module 136
87
6.3.1 System Location of the T /R Module 136
5.1 Introduction 87 6.3.2 T/R Block Diagram 137
5.2 Based Concepts of Antennas 87 6.4 T /R Module Detailed Description 138
6.4.1 Low Noise Amplifier 138
5.3 Antenna Development Process 88 6.4.2 Low Noise Amplifier Protection 143
5.4 Conventional Dipole
6.4.3 High-Power Amplifier and Driver Amplifier 145
89 6.4.4 Phase Shifter 148
5.5 Planar Inverted-F Antenna 91
6.4.5 Duplexer 148
5.6 Meander Line Antenna
6.5 T /R Module Manufacturing and Test 150
99
6.5.1 Integrated Circuit Manufacturing 150
5.7 Microstrip Patch Antennas 102 6.5.2 Package Manufacturing 152
6.5.3 Interconnects Types 153
5.8 Bowrie Dipole Antenna 105 6.5.4 T /R Module Test 154
5.9 Waveguide Radiators 108 6.6 Examples of T /R Modules 154
6.6.1 A 3-D Ceramic T /R Module for Space-Based 8.4 Basic Digital Beamforming 186
Applications 154
6.6.2 T/R Module Using Laminate Circuit Board Technology 155 8.5 Adaptive Beamforming 188
6.6.3 60-GHz CMOS T/R Module Integrated with Antennas 155
8.6 Errors in Beamforming and Their Effects 190
6.7 Conclusions 155
8.7 Multiple Access Methods for 5G Phased Arrays 192
6.8 Problems 156 8.7.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access 192
References 156 8.7.2 Code Division Multiple Access 193
8.7.3 Other Access Technologies 193
7 Thermal Design, Heat Transfer Trade Studies, and 8.8 Conclusions 194
Reliabili!): 159
7.1 Introduction 159
8.9 Problems 194
References 195
7.2 Heat Transfer Fundamentals at the Integrated Circuit
Level 160 9 Digital Receiver Exciters 197
7.3 Reliability and MTTF 166 9.1 Introduction 197
7.4 Example: Millimeter-Wave SATCOM Front End 168 9.2 Digital Receiver Architecture Options 199
7.5 Array Cooling Methods 171 9.3 Example Trade Study on Digital Receiver Architecture 200
7.5.1 The Challenge of Phased Array Cooling 171 204
7.5.2 Brick Array Cooling 172
9.4 Digital Exciter Architecture Options
7.5.3 Tile Array Cooling 175 9.5 Main Components of a Digital Receiver Exciter 204
7.6 Other Reliability Drivers for Phased Arrays 176 9.5.1 Low Noise Amplifier 205
9.5.2 Digital Attenuator 205
7.7 Materials Used for Thermal Management 177 9.5.3 Frequency Mixer 206
9.5.4 Preselection, Image Rejection, and Antialiasing Filters 207
7.8 Conclusions 177 9.5.5 Frequency Multipliers 209
7.9 Problems 178
9.5.6 ADC 212
References 179 9.6 Analysis of DRXs 213
8 Analog versus Digital Beamforming 181 9.7 Conclusions 213
8.1 Introduction 181 9.8 Problems 214
References 215
8.2 Benefits and Challenges in Analog Bearnforming 182
8.3 Benefits and Challenges in Digital Beamforming 183