Sustainable Materials for Electrochemcial Capacitors

Cover
Half Title
Sustainable Materials for Electrochemcial Capacitors
Copyright
Contents
Preface
1. Sustainable Materials for Electrochemical Supercapacitors: Eco Materials
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Eco-Carbon-Based Electrode Materials
	1.3 Eco-Metal Oxide-Based Electrode Materials
	1.4 Eco-Carbon-Based Material/Metal Oxide Composite Electrode Materials
	1.5 Conclusion
	References
2. Solid Waste-Derived Carbon Materials for Electrochemical Capacitors
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Solid Waste as a Source of CNS
	2.3 Preparation and Activation Methods of Solid Waste-Derived CNS
	2.4 Effect of Structural and Morphological Diversities on Electrochemical Performance
	2.5 Environmental Trash-Derived CNS in Electrochemical Capacitors
	2.6 Challenges and Future Prospects
	2.7 Conclusions
	References
3. Metal Hydroxides
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Method to Fabricate Metal Hydroxide
		3.2.1 Precipitation Strategy
		3.2.2 Post-Uniting and Metal Cation Consolidation Strategy
		3.2.3 Ion Exchange Method
		3.2.4 Sonochemical Method
		3.2.5 Hydrothermal Method
		3.2.6 Polyol Synthesis
	3.3 Properties and Applications of MOHs
		3.3.1 MOH Flame Retardants
			3.3.1.1 Alumina Tri-Hydrate (ATH) and Milk of Magnesia
			3.3.1.2 Utilization of Mg(OH)2 as a Flame Resistance in Plastics
		3.3.2 MOHs Sludge Can Be Used as Latest Adsorbent
		3.3.3 Metal Hydroxide MOH Nanostructures
		3.3.4 MOHs for Supercapacitor Electrode Materials
		3.3.5 Drugs or Pharmaceutical Applications
			3.3.5.1 Ca(OH)2 Used in Dental Practice
		3.3.6 Removal of Toxins from the Water
			3.3.6.1 Water’s Physical and Chemical Characteristics
			3.3.6.2 Types of Wastewater
			3.3.6.3 Treatment Techniques of Wastewater
			3.3.6.4 Metal Hydroxide for Treatment of Wastewater
	3.4 Examples of Metal Hydroxide
		3.4.1 Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
			3.4.1.1 Utilizations of Ca(OH)2 in Dental Detailing of Ca(OH)2 (Glues)
			3.4.1.2 Materials for Setting the Therapeutic Effect
			3.4.1.3 Covering of Pits
		3.4.2 Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2
		3.4.3 Copper Hydroxide
		3.4.4 Graphene Hydroxide
		3.4.5 Nickel Hydroxides
		3.4.6 Aluminum Hydroxide
			3.4.6.1 Sources of Human Exposure in the Environment
			3.4.6.2 Natural Levels and Exposure to the Environment and Humans
			3.4.6.3 Kinetics and Metabolism in Humans
		3.4.6.4 Animals
	3.5 Conclusions
	References
4. Porous Organic Polymers: Genres, Chemistry, Synthetic Strategies, and Diversified Applications
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Family of Porous Organic Materials
		4.2.1 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs)
			4.2.1.1 Historical Development of Covalent Organic Frameworks COFs
			4.2.1.2 Chemistry of Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs)
			4.2.1.3 Classifications of COFs
			4.2.1.4 Synthetic Strategy Adopted for COFs Formation
			4.2.1.5 Characterization COF
			4.2.1.6 Applications of COF
		4.2.2 Covalent Triazine Frameworks (CTF)
			4.2.2.1 Historical Development of CTF
			4.2.2.2 Chemistry of CTFs
			4.2.2.3 Synthesize of CTFs
			4.2.2.4 Characterizations of CTFs
			4.2.2.5 Applications of CTF
		4.2.3 Hyper-Cross-Linked Polymers (HCPs)
			4.2.3.1 Historical Development
			4.2.3.2 Chemistry of HCPs
			4.2.3.3 Synthesis of HCPs
			4.2.3.4 Characterization and Applications of HCP
			4.2.3.5 Applications of HCPs
		4.2.4 Conjugated Micro Porous Polymers (CMP)
			4.2.4.1 Historical Development and Selected Advances of Conjugated Micro Porous Polymers
			4.2.4.2 Design and Synthetic Strategy Adopted for Synthesizing CMPs
			4.2.4.3 Characterization of Conjugated Microporous Polymers (CMP)
			4.2.4.4 Applications of CMPs
		4.2.5 Porous Aromatic Frameworks (PAFs)
			4.2.5.1 Historical Development of PAF
			4.2.5.2 Chemistry of PAF
			4.2.5.3 Design Principles and Synthetic Strategy Adopted to Synthesize PAFs
			4.2.5.4 Synthesize of PAFs
			4.2.5.5 PAF Characterization
			4.2.5.6 Applications
		4.2.6 Porous Organic Cages
			4.2.6.1 Characterization of Organic Cages
	4.3 Conclusions and Perspectives
	References
5. Gel-Type Natural Polymers as Electroconductive Materials
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Natural Polymers
		5.2.1 Hydrogels
		5.2.2 Classification of Hydrogels
		5.2.3 Composition of Hydrogels
		5.2.4 Natural Polymers Derived Hydrogels
		5.2.5 Cellulose-Based Hydrogels
		5.2.6 Chitosan-Based Hydrogels
		5.2.7 Xanthan Gum-Based Hydrogels
		5.2.8 Sea Weed-Derived Polysaccharide-Based Hydrogels
		5.2.9 Protein-Based Hydrogels
		5.2.10 DNA-Based Hydrogels
	5.3 Synthesis Methods for Fabrication of Natural Polymer-Based Hydrogels
		5.3.1 Natural Polymer-Based Chemically Cross-Linked Hydrogels
		5.3.2 Grafting Method
		5.3.3 Radical Polymerization Method
		5.3.4 Irradiation Method
		5.3.5 Enzymatic Reaction Method
	5.4 Natural Polymer-Based Physically Cross-Linked Hydrogels
		5.4.1 By Freezing and Thawing Cycles
		5.4.2 By Hydrogen Bonding
		5.4.3 By Ionic Interactions
	5.5 Properties of Natural Polymer-Based Hydrogels
		5.5.1 Mechanical Properties
		5.5.2 Biodegradability
		5.5.3 Swelling Characteristics
	5.6 Stimuli Sensitivity of Hydrogels
	5.7 Application of Hydrogels as Electrochemical Supercapacitors
		5.7.1 Types of Supercapacitors
		5.7.2 Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC)
		5.7.3 Pseudo Capacitor
		5.7.4 Asymmetric or Hybrid Supercapacitors
	5.8 Conducting Polymer Hydrogels as Electrode Materials
	5.9 Conducting Polymer Hydrogels as Electrolyte Materials
	5.10 Conclusion
	References
6. Ionic Liquids for Supercapacitors
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Brief Introduction of Supercapacitor
		6.2.1 Supercapacitor and Its Classification
		6.2.2 Electrolyte of Supercapacitor
	6.3 Ionic Liquids and Its Unique Properties
	6.4 Application of Ionic Liquids in Supercapacitors
		6.4.1 Pure Ionic Liquid as Electrolyte
			6.4.1.1 Aprotic Ionic Liquids
			6.4.1.2 Proton Ionic Liquids
			6.4.1.3 Functionalized Ionic Liquids
		6.4.2 Mixture Electrolyte of Ionic Liquids
			6.4.2.1 Binary of Ionic Liquids
			6.4.2.2 Mixed Electrolyte of Organic Solvent and Ionic Liquids
			6.4.2.3 Mixed Electrolyte of Ionic Liquid and Ionic Salt
	6.5 Conclusion and Prospective
	Acknowledgments
	References
7. Functional Binders for Electrochemical Capacitors
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Characteristics of Binder
	7.3 Method of Fabricating Supercapacitor Electrode
	7.4 Mechanism of Binding Process
	7.5 Classification of Binders
		7.5.1 On the Basis of Origin
		7.5.2 On the Basis of Reactivity
	7.6 Characterization Techniques
	7.7 Conventional Binders and Related Issues
	7.8 Sustainable Binders
	7.9 Conclusion
	References
8. Sustainable Substitutes for Fluorinated Electrolytes in Electrochemical Capacitors
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Fluorinated Electrolytes
	8.3 Sustainable Substitutes for Fluorinated Electrolytes
		8.3.1 Aqueous Electrolytes
			8.3.1.1 Seawater
			8.3.1.2 Aqueous Solution of Redox-Active Ligands as Electrolytes
		8.3.2 Organic Electrolytes
		8.3.3 Solid-State Electrolytes
	8.4 Performance of Sustainable Electrolytes Compared to Fluorinated Electrolytes
		8.4.1 Strongly Acidic Electrolytes
		8.4.2 Strong Alkaline Electrolytes
		8.4.3 Neutral Electrolytes
		8.4.4 Organic Electrolytes
	8.5 Final Remarks
	References
9. Aqueous Redox-Active Electrolytes
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Effect of the Electrolyte on Supercapacitor Performance
	9.3 Aqueous Electrolytes
	9.4 Acidic Electrolytes
		9.4.1 Sulfuric Acid Electrolyte-Based EDLC and Pseudocapacitors
		9.4.2 H2SO4 Electrolyte-Based Hybrid Supercapacitors
	9.5 Alkaline Electrolytes
		9.5.1 Alkaline Electrolyte-Based EDLC and Pseudocapacitors
		9.5.2 Alkaline Electrolyte-Based Hybrid Supercapacitors
	9.6 Neutral Electrolyte
		9.6.1 Neutral Electrolyte-Based EDLC and Pseudocapacitors
		9.6.2 Neutral Electrolyte-Based Hybrid Supercapacitors
	9.7 Conclusion and Future Research Directions
	References
10. Biodegradable Electrolytes
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Classification of Biodegradable Electrolytes
		10.2.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes
		10.2.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes
		10.2.3 Composite Polymer Electrolytes
	10.3 Preparation of Biodegradable Electrolytes
	10.4 Some Defined Ways to Increase the Ionic Conductivity
		10.4.1 Polymer Blending
		10.4.2 Incorporation of Additives
	10.5 Factors Affecting Ion Conduction of Biodegradable Polymer Electrolytes
	10.6 Properties of Ideal Biodegradable Electrolyte System
	10.7 Applications of Biodegradable Electrolytes
		10.7.1 Biodegradable Electrolytes in Fuel Cells
		10.7.2 Biodegradable Electrolytes and Batteries
		10.7.3 Supercapacitors in Terms of Biodegradable Electrolytes
		10.7.4 Biodegradable Electrolytes in Dye Sensitized Solar Cells
	10.8 Conclusion
	References
11. Supercapattery: An Electrochemical Energy Storage Device
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Batteries and Capacitors
	11.3 Supercapattery Device and Electrode Materials
		11.3.1 Metal-Based Materials and Their Composites
		11.3.2 Polymers and their Composites
		11.3.3 Carbon Materials and Their Composites
	11.4 Advantages and Challenges of Supercapatteries
	11.5 Conclusions
	References
12. Ceramic Multilayers and Films for High.Performance Supercapacitors
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Different Types of Ceramic Materials
		12.2.1 Metal Oxides
		12.2.2 Multi-Elemental Oxides
			12.2.2.1 Spinel Oxides
			12.2.2.2 Barium Titanate (BaTiO3)
			12.2.2.3 Other Unique Ceramics for Supercapacitors
	12.3 Multilayer Structure
	12.4 Supercapacitors Based on Ceramic Materials
		12.4.1 Metal Oxide Ceramics
		12.4.2 Multi-Elemental Oxide Ceramics
		12.4.3 Other Special Ceramics
	12.5 Challenges and Prospects
	12.6 Conclusion
	References
13. Potential Applications in Sustainable Supercapacitors
	Abbreviations
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Fundamentals and Components of SCs
		13.2.1 Conventional Capacitor
		13.2.2 Specific Capacitance
		13.2.3 Specific Energy and Power Density
		13.2.4 Electrolytes
		13.2.5 Separators
		13.2.6 Current Collectors
	13.3 Sustainable Nanomaterials in SCs
		13.3.1 Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLCs)
		13.3.2 Pseudocapacitors (PC)
		13.3.3 Asymmetric Supercapacitor
	13.4 Sustainable Carbon Nanomaterials for Energy Storage
		13.4.1 Activated Carbon
		13.4.2 Nitrogen-Doped Carbons
		13.4.3 Sulphur-Doped Carbons
		13.4.4 Boron-Doped Carbons
		13.4.5 Phosphorus-Doped Carbons
		13.4.6 Co-Doping of Carbons
	13.5 Conclusions
	References
14. Wearable Supercapacitors
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Working Principle
	14.3 Design of Electrode Materials
		14.3.1 1D Yarn-Shaped Electrode
		14.3.2 2D-Shaped Electrodes
		14.3.3 3D-Shaped Supercapacitor
	14.4 Wearable Supercapacitor
		14.4.1 Material Selection
		14.4.2 Mechanical Adaptability
		14.4.3 Self-Healable
	14.5 Integrated Application
		14.5.1 Supercapacitor with Sensing Applications
		14.5.2 Supercapacitor with Electrochromic Applications
		14.5.3 Supercapacitor with Shape-Memory Applications
		14.5.4 Supercapacitor with Energy Harvesting Applications
	14.6 Conclusion
	References
15. Electrospun Materials
	15.1 Introduction
		15.1.1 Brief History
	15.2 Electrospinning Process
	15.3 Advantages of Electrospinning Technique
	15.4 Working Parameters of Electrospinning Process
		15.4.1 Solution Parameters
		15.4.2 Processing Parameters
		15.4.3 Ambient Parameters
	15.5 Electrospinning-Based Preparation Methods for Nanofibers
		15.5.1 Melt Electrospinning
		15.5.2 Solution Electrospinning
	15.6 Formation of Pore in Electrospun Polymer Fibers
		15.6.1 Breath Figures (BF)
		15.6.2 Vapor-Induced Phase Separation (VIPS)
		15.6.3 Non-Solvent-Induced Phase Separation (NIPS)
		15.6.4 Thermally Induced Phase Separation (TIPS)
		15.6.5 Selective Removal
	15.7 Modification of Electrospun Micro- and Nanofibers
		15.7.1 Chemical Modification
			15.7.1.1 Cross-Linking
			15.7.1.2 Grafting
			15.7.1.3 Wet Chemical Treatment Technique
		15.7.2 Thermal Modifications
			15.7.2.1 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Modification
			15.7.2.2 Heating
		15.7.3 Physical Modification
			15.7.3.1 Plasma Treatment
			15.7.3.2 Stretching
			15.7.3.3 Layer-by-Layer
			15.7.3.4 Spray-Based Methods
		15.7.4 Physico-Chemical Modifications
	15.8 Applications
		15.8.1 Tissue Engineering
		15.8.2 Wound Dressing
		15.8.3 Drug Delivery
		15.8.4 Water Treatment
			15.8.4.1 Oil/Water Separation
			15.8.4.2 Organic Dyes Removal
			15.8.4.3 Heavy Metal Ions Removal
		15.8.5 Sensors for Breath Analysis
		15.8.6 Photocatalysis
		15.8.7 Energy Storage Devices
		15.8.8 Capacitors
		15.8.9 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)
		15.8.10 Fuel Cells
		15.8.11 Food and Food Packaging
	15.9 Conclusion
	References
16. Polysaccharide Biomaterials for Electrochemical Applications
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Polysaccharides in Energy Devices
		16.2.1 Polysaccharide-Based Electrolytes
		16.2.2 Polysaccharide-Based Electrodes
			16.2.2.1 Cellulose-Based Electrode Materials
			16.2.2.2 Chitosan/Chitin-Based Electrode Materials
			16.2.2.3 Starch-Based Electrode Materials
			16.2.2.4 Gum-Based Electrode Materials
			16.2.2.5 Alginates-Based Electrode Materials
			16.2.2.6 Pectin-Based Electrode Materials
	16.2.3 Conclusion
	References
17. Polymer Inks for Printable Supercapacitors
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Screen Printing
	17.3 Inkjet Printing
	17.4 3D Printing
	17.5 Conclusion and Outlook
	References
18. Biomass-Derived Carbon for Supercapacitors
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Tuneable Physiochemical Properties
		18.2.1 Effect of Morphology
		18.2.2 Effect of the Activation Process
		18.2.3 Effect of Doping
	18.3 Synthesis Procedure
		18.3.1 Pyrolysis
		18.3.2 Hydrothermal Carbonization
		18.3.3 Torre Faction
		18.3.4 Gasification
	18.4 Main Categories of Biomass
		18.4.1 Plant-Based Biomass
		18.4.2 Microorganism-Based Biomass
		18.4.3 Animal-Based Biomass
	18.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
Index