Sustainability of Southern African Ecosystems under Global Change: Science for Management and Policy Interventions (Ecological Studies, 248)

In memory off Mathieu Rouault
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
Contributors
Part I Background
	1 Coupled Earth System and Human Processes: An Introduction to SPACES and the Book
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Long-Term Southern African–German Scientific Cooperation and Background to SPACES
		1.3 SPACES II Training and Knowledge Exchange Program
		1.4 SPACES II Synthesis
		1.5 Geographic Advantages for Global Change Research in Southern Africa
			1.5.1 Climate Change
			1.5.2 Carbon Dynamics
		1.6 Science in Support of Ecosystem Management
		1.7 Monitoring
		1.8 Synthesis and Outlook
		References
	2 Unique Southern African Terrestrial and Oceanic Biomes and Their Relation to Steep Environmental Gradients
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Oceanic Biomes
			2.2.1 Oceanographic Gradients Shaping Southern African Marine Biomes
			2.2.2 Southern African Marine Biomes: A Brief Overview
				2.2.2.1 Angola Current Biome
				2.2.2.2 The Northern Benguela Upwelling System (nBUS)
				2.2.2.3 The Southern Benguela Upwelling System (sBUS)
				2.2.2.4 Agulhas Current LME
			2.2.3 The Benguela Upwelling System: A Focus Region of SPACES Research
				2.2.3.1 A Global Perspective on the Ecological Significance of the Benguela Region
				2.2.3.2 Biome-Level Diversity
				2.2.3.3 Productivity and Resource Utilization
				2.2.3.4 Organizational Efforts Geared to Protect Marine Biodiversity
			2.2.4 Marine Spatial Planning in Southern Africa
		2.3 Terrestrial Biomes
			2.3.1 Environmental Gradients Shaping Terrestrial Biomes
			2.3.2 Southern African Terrestrial Biomes
				2.3.2.1 Savanna Biome
				2.3.2.2 Grassland Biome
				2.3.2.3 Nama-Karoo Biome
				2.3.2.4 Desert Biome
				2.3.2.5 Succulent Karoo Biome
				2.3.2.6 Fynbos Biome
				2.3.2.7 Forest Biome
				2.3.2.8 Indian Ocean Coastal Belt Biome
				2.3.2.9 Albany Thicket Biome
			2.3.3 Diversity of Southern African Terrestrial Biomes
				2.3.3.1 Large-Scale Environmental Factors Shaping Terrestrial Biodiversity
				2.3.3.2 Small-Scale Environmental Gradients Within Terrestrial Biomes
				2.3.3.3 Primary and Secondary Productivity and Use
				2.3.3.4 Organizational Efforts Geared to Protect Terrestrial Biodiversity
		2.4 Connection Between Oceanic and Coastal Terrestrial Ecosystems
		2.5 Southern African Biomes: Carbon Sources or Sinks?
			2.5.1 Oceanic Biomes
			2.5.2 Terrestrial Biomes
		2.6 Impacts of Climate Change
			2.6.1 Impact of Climate Change on Marine Biomes
				2.6.1.1 Climate Change Affecting Coastal Upwelling Systems
				2.6.1.2 Climate Change Impacts on Marine Species in the Benguela
			2.6.2 Impact of Climate Change on Terrestrial Biomes
		2.7 Conclusions and Implications
		References
	3 Environmental Challenges to Meeting Sustainable Development Goals in Southern Africa
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Ecosystems and Sustainable Development Goals Nexus
		3.3 Drivers of Change, Typical Threats and SDG Implications
		3.4 Natural Habitat Loss, Transformation and Degradation
			3.4.1 Anthropogenic Land-Use Change
				3.4.1.1 Transformation for Croplands and Commercial Timber Plantations
				3.4.1.2 Transformation for Infrastructure (e.g., Hydropower, Dams and Urbanization)
				3.4.1.3 Policy Implementation Including Agrarian Reform
			3.4.2 Woody Plant Proliferation
			3.4.3 Alien Invasive Species
		3.5 Threats to Freshwater and Marine Ecosystem
			3.5.1 Overharvesting of Aquatic Species
			3.5.2 Coastal Impacts
			3.5.3 Pollution
		3.6 Climate Change, a Threat to Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning
		3.7 An Analysis of SDGs and Ecosystem Threats
			3.7.1 Policy Implications for Ecosystem Protection and Restoration
		3.8 Conclusion
		References
	4 Overview of the Macroeconomic Drivers of the Region
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Macroeconomic Trends in Southern Africa
			4.2.1 The Situation in South Africa
			4.2.2 The Situation in Limpopo
		4.3 The Policy Arena
			4.3.1 Agricultural Policies
			4.3.2 Trade Policies
		4.4 Recommendations for Reform
		References
Part II Drivers of Climatic Variability and Change in Southern Africa
	5 Past Climate Variability in the Last Millennium
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 The Climate of the Past Millennium: Global Background
		5.3 The Climate of the Past Millennium: Southern Africa
		5.4 Paleoclimate Simulations with Earth System Models
		5.5 Comparison Between Proxy Data and Model Simulations
		5.6 Conclusions and Outlook
		References
	6 Southern Africa Climate Over the Recent Decades: Description, Variability and Trends
		6.1 Annual Cycle of Rainfall in Southern Africa
		6.2 Synoptic Drivers of Rainfall
		6.3 Interannual Variability
		6.4 Decadal Variability of Southern Africa's Climate
		6.5 Current Climate Trends
		6.6 Further Research Questions
		References
	7 Projections of Future Climate Change in Southern Africa and the Potential for Regional Tipping Points
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Data and Methods
		7.3 Projected Changes in Rainfall and Temperature
			7.3.1 Projected Changes in Annual Rainfall Totals
			7.3.2 Projected Changes in Annual Average Near-Surface Temperature
			7.3.3 Projected Changes in Extremes
		7.4 The Risk of Regional Tipping Points
		7.5 Conclusions
		References
	8 The Agulhas Current System as an Important Driver for Oceanic and Terrestrial Climate
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 The Agulhas Current
		8.3 Agulhas Leakage and Its Impact on the South Atlantic and the Benguela Upwelling System
		8.4 Impact on Climate in Southern Africa
		8.5 Impact on Coasts
		8.6 Summary
		References
	9 Physical Drivers of Southwest African Coastal Upwelling and Its Response to Climate Variability and Change
		Abbreviations
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Eastern Boundary Upwelling System of the South Atlantic
			9.2.1 The Tropical Angolan Upwelling System
			9.2.2 The Northern Benguela Upwelling System
			9.2.3 The Southern Benguela Upwelling System
		9.3 Interannual Variability
		9.4 Decadal Variations and Multidecadal Trends
		9.5 Summary, Discussion and Recommendation for the Future Observing System
		References
	10 Regional Land –Atmosphere Interactions in Southern Africa: Potential Impact and Sensitivity of Forest and Plantation Change
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Specific Objectives
		10.3 Data and Methods
			10.3.1 Regional Coupled Land–Atmosphere Model
			10.3.2 Experiment Design
		10.4 Results and Discussion
			10.4.1 Validation of Model Performance
			10.4.2 Impacts of Current Forest and Plantation Cover Change on Regional Climate and Land–Atmosphere Interactions
			10.4.3 Potential Impacts of Forest and Plantation Removal on Land–Atmosphere Interactions
		10.5 Summary and Outlook
		References
Part III Science in Support of Ecosystem Management
	11 Studies of the Ecology of the Benguela Current Upwelling System: The TRAFFIC Approach
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Previous Research and Hypotheses
		11.3 Major Biological Components of the Benguela Upwelling System
			11.3.1 Abiotic Parameters and Chlorophyll Measurements
			11.3.2 Phytoplankton and Microzooplankton
			11.3.3 Mesozooplankton
			11.3.4 Macrozooplankton and Micronekton
			11.3.5 Higher Trophic Levels
			11.3.6 Commercial Fishery
		11.4 Conclusion
		Glossary of Organizations and Projects
		Organizations
		Projects
		References
	12 The Application of Paleoenvironmental Research in Supporting Land Management Approaches and Conservationin South Africa
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Evolution of South African Paleoenvironmental Research
		12.3 Shifting Mindsets: The Combination of Paleoecology and Restoration Ecology
		12.4 A Look into the Future: Applied Paleoecology
			12.4.1 What Operational Approaches Are Needed to Implement Ecosystem-Based Management Actions Based on Applied Paleoecology?
		12.5 Conclusions
		References
	13 Soil Erosion Research and Soil Conservation Policyin South Africa
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Erosion and Denudation
		13.3 Soil Erosion Due to Human Impact
			13.3.1 On-Site Damages from Soil Erosion
			13.3.2 Off-Site Damage from Soil Erosion
		13.4 Soil Erosion and Conservation Policy in South Africa
			13.4.1 Development of Soil Conservation Policy
			13.4.2 Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation Research Development
			13.4.3 A Successful Soil Conservation Policy
		13.5 The Extent of Soil Erosion by Water in South Africa
		13.6 The Extent of Soil Erosion by Wind in South Africa
		13.7 The Socioeconomic Dimension of Soil Erosion
		13.8 Challenges for Soil Conservation in South Africa
		References
	14 Biome Change in Southern Africa
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Phytoclimes
			14.2.1 Phytoclime Methods
			14.2.2 Phytoclime Findings
			14.2.3 Synthesis of Phytoclime Change Scenarios
		14.3 Insights from DGVM Modelling of Biomes
			14.3.1 DGVM Methods
			14.3.2 DGVM Findings
		14.4 Monitoring Biome Change
			14.4.1 Birds as Indicators of Biome Change
			14.4.2 Phytometers as Indicators of Biome Change
			14.4.3 Remote Sensing of Phenome Change
		14.5 Discussion
		References
	15 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions in Southern African Savanna Rangelands: Threats, Impacts and Solutions
		15.1 Biophysical Features of African Savanna Rangelands
		15.2 Land Tenure and Grazing Systems
		15.3 Savanna Rangelands as Source of Food, Fodder and Valuable Ecosystem Services
		15.4 Indicators and Drivers of Degradation in African Savanna Rangelands
			15.4.1 Climate, Atmospheric CO2, Overgrazing and Fire Suppression
			15.4.2 Socioecological Framework and Policy
		15.5 Degradation of African Savanna Rangelands
			15.5.1 Bush Encroachment
			15.5.2 Soil Erosion, Soil Nutrient and Soil Moisture Decline
			15.5.3 Decline in Water Quality and Groundwater Recharge
			15.5.4 Biodiversity
				15.5.4.1 Plant Diversity
				15.5.4.2 Plant Diversity Mediates Soil Moisture, Groundwater Recharge and Primary Production
				15.5.4.3 Animal Diversity
				15.5.4.4 Animal Diversity Mediates Soil Moisture and Soil Nutrient Dynamics
		15.6 Impacts of Degradation on Human Livelihoods
		15.7 Strategies to Mitigate the Effects of Degradation
		15.8 Conclusions
		References
	16 Managing Southern African Rangeland Systems in the Face of Drought: A Synthesis of Observation, Experimentation and Modeling for Policy and Decision Support
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Study Area
		16.3 Observational Approach
			16.3.1 Background: Observational Approaches to Study Combined Effects of Drought and Grazing
			16.3.2 Data Collection
			16.3.3 Data Analysis
			16.3.4 Key Results and Discussion
			16.3.5 Recommendations Derived from the Results and Outlook
		16.4 Experimental Approach
			16.4.1 Background: Experimental Approaches to Study Combined Effects of Drought and Grazing
			16.4.2 Experimental Setup
			16.4.3 Data Collection
			16.4.4 Data Analysis
			16.4.5 Key Results
			16.4.6 Recommendations Derived from the Results and Outlook
		16.5 Modeling Approach
			16.5.1 Background: Modeling Savanna Rangelands
			16.5.2 Improving aDGVM and aDGVM2
			16.5.3 Key Results
			16.5.4 Recommendations Derived from the Results and Outlook
		16.6 Integrating Observations, Experiments and Modeling
			16.6.1 Applying aDGVM2 to DroughtAct
			16.6.2 What Did We Learn from Observations, Experiments and Modeling?
			16.6.3 Recommendations for Decision-Makers
		16.7 Outlook
		16.8 Conclusions
		References
	17 A Fine Line Between Carbon Source and Sink: Potential CO2 Sequestration through Sustainable Grazing Management in the Nama-Karoo
		17.1 Livestock Grazing Systems in the Nama-Karoo
			17.1.1 Historical Overview
			17.1.2 Current Grazing Practices in the Nama-Karoo
		17.2 Components of the Carbon Cycle and Their Quantification
			17.2.1 *-18pt
			17.2.2 Methods for Quantifying Carbon Uptake and Release
		17.3 Multiyear CO2 Budgets Under Different Grazing Intensities: A Case Study from the Nama-Karoo
			17.3.1 Site Description and Measurement Setup
			17.3.2 Ecosystem–Atmosphere CO2 Exchange
				17.3.2.1 Diurnal Variations of Carbon Fluxes
				17.3.2.2 Seasonal NEE, GPP and Reco Variations
				17.3.2.3 Seasonal and Annual Carbon Balances
			17.3.3 Carbon Flux Drivers
				17.3.3.1 Historical and Current Grazing
				17.3.3.2 Water Availability
		17.4 Potential Adjustments and Recommendations for C Sequestration
		17.5 Conclusions
		References
	18 Trends and Barriers to Wildlife-Based Options for Sustainable Management of Savanna Resources: The Namibian Case
		18.1 Wildlife as a Complementary or Alternative Livelihood Strategy in Arid Environments
		18.2 Wildlife Management in the Etosha South-West Landscape Case Study (The SPACES II ORYCS Project supported by the Biodiversity Economy in Landscapes Project)
			18.2.1 The Importance of Long-Distance Mobility for Wild Herbivore Survival in the Arid Savanna
			18.2.2 Private Wildlife Farming and Fencing
			18.2.3 Wildlife Movement and the Veterinary Cordon Fence (VCF)
		18.3 North-West Namibian Farmers' Perception on Coexistence with Wildlife
		18.4 Namibian Farmers' Perceptions of Biodiversity
			18.4.1 Case Study on Human–Elephant Conflict in the Etosha South-West Landscape
		18.5 Chapter Conclusion
		References
	19 Feed Gaps Among Cattle Keepers in Semiarid and Arid Southern African Regions: A Case Study in the Limpopo Province, South Africa
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Materials and Methods
			19.2.1 Study Area
			19.2.2 Data Collection and Analysis
		19.3 Results
			19.3.1 Estimation of Feed Balance in the Limpopo Province
			19.3.2 Feed Gap as Perceived by Livestock Farmers
			19.3.3 Results of Available Feed and Soil Resources
				19.3.3.1 Feeding Resources
				19.3.3.2 Soil Resources
		19.4 Discussion
			19.4.1 Dealing with Feed Gaps
			19.4.2 Managing Rangeland Stocking Density: Destocking to Reduce Pressure on Natural Resources
			19.4.3 On-Farm Feed Production
			19.4.4 Feed Aid Schemes
		19.5 Conclusions
		References
	20 Agricultural Land-Use Systems and Management Challenges
		20.1 Overview of Agricultural Land-Use and Related Management Challenges
			20.1.1 Introduction
			20.1.2 The Agroecological Conditions of Southern Africa
			20.1.3 Major Farming Systems in Southern Africa: Their Characteristics and Dynamics
		20.2 Selected Case Country Studies Illustrating Land-Use Dynamics and Its Drivers
			20.2.1 South Africa
			20.2.2 Zimbabwe
			20.2.3 Zambia
			20.2.4 Mozambique
		20.3 Global Change Threats and the Quest for Sustainable Intensification and Diversification
			20.3.1 Changes in Demography, Food Demand and Food Insecurity
			20.3.2 Climate Variability and Change, Natural Resource Limitations and Low Agricultural Productivity
			20.3.3 The Quest for Sustainable Intensification and Diversification
		20.4 Agricultural Management Challenges and Transformation Pathways for a Sustainable Future
			20.4.1 Most Pressing Agricultural Management Challenges
				20.4.1.1 The Need of Improving Soil Health in the Face of Climate Change
				20.4.1.2 Water Management from the Crop via Farm to the Watershed
				20.4.1.3 Integration of Biodiversity at Farm and Landscape Level
			20.4.2 Outlook on Sustainable Transformation Pathways
		20.5 Conclusions
		References
	21 The Need for Sustainable Agricultural Land-Use Systems: Benefits from Integrated Agroforestry Systems
		21.1 Introduction
			21.1.1 Land-Use Pressure
			21.1.2 Agroecosystems of Southern Africa
			21.1.3 Impact of Land Use on African Savannas
		21.2 Developing Sustainable Land Management Strategies for the Savannas
			21.2.1 Current Land Management Strategies
			21.2.2 Low Input, No-Tillage Agriculture
			21.2.3 Perennial Crops
			21.2.4 Usage of Crop Varieties
			21.2.5 Organic Farming
			21.2.6 Integrated Pest Management Systems
			21.2.7 Precision Agriculture
		21.3 Agroforestry Systems
			21.3.1 Integration of Agroforestry into Sustainable Land-Use Systems
			21.3.2 What Is Agroforestry?
			21.3.3 Origin of Systems
			21.3.4 Typical Types of Agroforestry Systems in Southern Africa
			21.3.5 Benefits and Limits of Agroforestry
		21.4 Innovations of Land Management Strategies
		21.5 Implications for Land Management Systems on the African Savannas
		21.6 Agroforestry in Policy Implementation
			21.6.1 Challenges in Policy Coordination
			21.6.2 Policy Research in Agroforestry
		21.7 Conclusions
		References
	22 Management Options for Macadamia Orchards with Special Focus on Water Management and Ecosystem Services
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Water Management
			22.2.1 Water Availability and Macadamia Irrigation
			22.2.2 Sustainable Water Management Practices
			22.2.3 Suggestions Towards More Sustainable Water Management in Macadamia Orchards by SALLnet
		22.3 Pollination
			22.3.1 Potential Pollinators of Macadamia Crops
			22.3.2 Pollination Limitation
			22.3.3 Management Strategies to Facilitate Pollination Services in Macadamia Orchards
		22.4 Natural Pest Control with a Special Focus on Insectivorous Bats
			22.4.1 South African Macadamia Insect Pests
			22.4.2 Avoided Cost Models and Exclusion Studies of Vertebrate Predators
			22.4.3 Habitat Use of Bats in Macadamia Orchards
			22.4.4 The Effect of Pesticide Application on Ecosystem Services
		22.5 Conclusions
		References
	23 Potential of Improved Technologies to Enhance Land Management Practices of Small-Scale Farmers in Limpopo Province, South Africa
		23.1 Introduction
			23.1.1 Background and Motivation
			23.1.2 Problem Statement and Objectives of the Chapter
		23.2 Farm Household Characteristics: Small-Scale Subsistence Versus Emerging Farmers
		23.3 Yield Gaps and Current Resource Use Efficiencies in Small-Scale Farming Systems
			23.3.1 Current Resource Use Efficiencies for Different Small-Scale Farming Systems in the Region
			23.3.2 Results of Efficiency Analysis of Current Maize-Based Small-Scale Farming Systems
			23.3.3 Potential of Different Types of Technological Improvements
		23.4 Tools Required to Model Impacts of Different Technological Innovations on Sustainable Agricultural Land-Use (at Multiple Scales)
			23.4.1 The Challenge of Developing a Framework for Analyzing Sustainable Land Management Scenarios
			23.4.2 Agro-Ecosystems Modeling
			23.4.3 Agent-Based Economic Modeling
		23.5 Assessing Effects of Selected Technology Improvements on Ecosystem Services
			23.5.1 Example of Integrated Analysis of the Effects of Selected Improved Technologies and Agricultural Innovations on Rural Livelihoods and Other Ecosystem Services at Community Level
			23.5.2 Discussion of Other Promising Land Management Interventions
		23.6 Synthesis and Outlook
		References
Part IV Monitoring and Modelling Tools
	24 A New Era of Earth Observation for the Environment: Spatio-Temporal Monitoring Capabilitiesfor Land Degradation
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Overview of Satellite Earth Observation Data Sources Suitable for Degradation Monitoring
		24.3 History, Opportunities, and Challenges for Degradation Monitoring in South Africa
			24.3.1 Vegetational Development
			24.3.2 Woody Cover
			24.3.3 Bush Encroachment
			24.3.4 Invasive Species (Acacia mearnsii)
			24.3.5 Drought and Soil Moisture
			24.3.6 Nation-Wide Assessments
			24.3.7 Integrated Modelling
			24.3.8 High-Resolution Validation
		24.4 Big Data Challenges and Insight into SALDi Process Flow
			24.4.1 General Big Data Situation
			24.4.2 Necessary Big Data Exploration Methodologies
			24.4.3 Available Infrastructures
			24.4.4 Digital Earth Africa
			24.4.5 International Cooperation and Knowledge Exchange
		24.5 Moving Forward
		References
	25 The Marine Carbon Footprint: Challenges in the Quantification of the CO2 Uptake by the Biological Carbon Pump in the Benguela Upwelling System
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Study Area: The Benguela Upwelling System
		25.3 Background
			25.3.1 Nutrient Recycling and Productivity
			25.3.2 Preformed Nutrients and the CO2 Uptake Efficiency of Biological Carbon Pump
			25.3.3 Solubility Pump and Upwelling from a Carbon Cycling Perspective
		25.4 Data and Methods
			25.4.1 Particulate Matter
			25.4.2 Water Sampling
		25.5 Results and Discussion
			25.5.1 CO2 Concentrations
			25.5.2 Export Production
				25.5.2.1 Export Production: A Top-Down Approach
				25.5.2.2 Export Production: A Bottom-Up Approach
			25.5.3 Redfield Ratio
				25.5.3.1 Redfield Ratio: A Top-Down Approach
				25.5.3.2 Redfield Ratio: A Bottom-Up Approach
			25.5.4 CO2 Sequestration
			25.5.5 Benthos
		25.6 Conclusion
		References
	26 Dynamics and Drivers of Net Primary Production (NPP) in Southern Africa Based on Estimates from Earth Observation and Process-Based Dynamic Vegetation Modelling
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Materials and Methods
			26.2.1 Study Region
			26.2.2 Data Sources
				26.2.2.1 Earth Observation Data
				26.2.2.2 Dynamic Vegetation Models
				26.2.2.3 Meteorological Data
			26.2.3 Data Analysis
				26.2.3.1 Analysis Software
				26.2.3.2 Time Series Analysis
				26.2.3.3 Statistical Correlation Analyses
		26.3 Results
			26.3.1 NPP Geographical Patterns
			26.3.2 NPP Temporal Development
			26.3.3 NPP and NDVI Correlations
			26.3.4 Potential Driving Factors of NPP
		26.4 Discussion
			26.4.1 Comparison of NPP from Modelling and Earth Observation Products
			26.4.2 Drivers of NPP Patterns and Trends
		26.5 Conclusion
		References
	27 Comparison of Different Normalisers for Identifying Metal Enrichment of Sediment: A Case Study from Richards Bay Harbour, South Africa
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Materials and Methods
			27.2.1 Site Description
			27.2.2 Sampling
			27.2.3 Granulometric and Geochemical Analysis
			27.2.4 Data Analysis
		27.3 Results and Discussion
			27.3.1 Evaluation of Normaliser Suitability
			27.3.2 Baseline Model Comparison
			27.3.3 Spatial Enrichment Trends
			27.3.4 Comparison to Guidelines
		27.4 Conclusion
		References
	28 Catchment and Depositional Studies for the Reconstruction of Past Environmental Change in Southern Africa
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 Depositional Studies/Stratigraphy of Marine Environments at the Sink
			28.2.1 Description of Mapping Strategies
			28.2.2 Challenges and Limitations
			28.2.3 Examples of Southern African Hydroacoustic Studies That Have Been Used for Source-to-Sink Understanding
				28.2.3.1 Case Study 1: Southernmost South African Shelf
				28.2.3.2 Case Study 2: Limpopo Shelf
				28.2.3.3 Case Study 3: Durban Shelf
		28.3 Catchment Studies at the Source
			28.3.1 A Description of Sampling Strategies
			28.3.2 Challenges and Limitations of Catchment Studies
			28.3.3 Examples of Southern African Source-to-Sink Studies That Have Been Used for Paleoclimatic Work
				28.3.3.1 Case Study 4: Western South African Coast
				28.3.3.2 Case Study 5: Southernmost African Coast
				28.3.3.3 Case Study 6: South-Eastern African Coast
				28.3.3.4 Case Study 7: Delagoa Bight
				28.3.3.5 Case Study 8: Umzimbuvu River
		28.4 Synthesis and Practical Recommendations
		28.5 Conclusions
		References
	29 Observational Support for Regional Policy Implementation: Land Surface Change Under Anthropogenic and Climate Pressure in SALDi Study Sites
		29.1 Introduction
		29.2 SALDi Study Sites
		29.3 Description of SALDi Product Catalog
		29.4 Regional Examples of Land Surface Change
			29.4.1 Overberg
			29.4.2 Kai !Garib
			29.4.3 Sol Plaatje
			29.4.4 Mantsopa
			29.4.5 Bojanala Platinum
			29.4.6 Ehlanzeni
		29.5 Summary of Implementation Opportunities and Conclusions
		References
Part V Synthesis and Outlook
	30 Research Infrastructures as Anchor Points for Long-Term Environmental Observation
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 Rationale for Coordinated Terrestrial Research Infrastructure in Southern Africa
		30.3 Status of a Coordinated Terrestrial Environmental Research Infrastructure in Southern Africa
		30.4 Design and Observational Aims of an Environmental RI
		30.5 Toward the Regional and Multidisciplinary Integration of Terrestrial Biogeochemical Research Infrastructures
		30.6 Impact of a Research Infrastructure and Its Assessment
		30.7 Conclusion
		References
	31 Lessons Learned from a North-South Science Partnership for Sustainable Development
		31.1 Introduction
		31.2 Material and Methods
			31.2.1 Structured Online Survey
			31.2.2 Co-authorship Network Analyses
		31.3 Results
			31.3.1 Designing Effective Collaborations in Project Proposals
			31.3.2 Researchers' Perspectives on North-South Collaboration
				31.3.2.1 Fundamentals
				31.3.2.2 Partnership Relationship
				31.3.2.3 Structure and Setup
				31.3.2.4 Management and Leadership
			31.3.3 Qualitative Insights from the Survey
				31.3.3.1 Impact of COVID-19
				31.3.3.2 Fields of Action to Improve North-South Collaborations
			31.3.4 Role of SPACES in Fostering Collaborative Publications
				31.3.4.1 Co-authorship Networks Between Individual Researchers
				31.3.4.2 Institute Co-authorship Network
				31.3.4.3 Relative Proportion of Collaborative Publications
		31.4 Discussion
			31.4.1 Resources Endowment of Southern Partners
			31.4.2 Involvement in Project Design and Management
			31.4.3 Co-authorship as a Key Tool for Effective Collaborations
			31.4.4 Critical Reflection on Methodology
		31.5 Policy Message
		References
	32 Synthesis and Outlook on Future Research and Scientific Education in Southern Africa
		32.1 Introduction
		32.2 Overview
			32.2.1 Climate Change
			32.2.2 Climate Change Impacts
			32.2.3 Carbon Cycles
			32.2.4 Marine Systems
			32.2.5 Terrestrial Environment
				32.2.5.1 Natural Rangelands and Agriculture
				32.2.5.2 Primary and Secondary Production and Use in the Terrestrial Environment
			32.2.6 Understanding Rates of Change
		32.3 Emerging Issues for Integrated Ecosystems Research
			32.3.1 Ocean–Atmosphere–Land Interactions and Feedbacks
			32.3.2 Mesoscale Effects and Across Scale Effects
			32.3.3 Biogeochemical Processes in Hydrosphere–Biosphere–Lithosphere
			32.3.4 Thresholds of Change, Tipping Points, and Impacts from Unique Events
			32.3.5 Distinguishing Signals from Complex Drivers
			32.3.6 Multifunctional Land Use and Integrated Landscapes
			32.3.7 Connection Between Different Research Topics and Approaches: The Need for Integration Across Disciplines and for Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Collaboration
			32.3.8 Societal Impacts: Visions for the Future
			32.3.9 Governance
		32.4 Mutual Learning, Capacity Development, and Citizen Science
		32.5 Lessons Learned and Recommendations for the Future
		References
Index