Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Processes

Title Page......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Contents......Page 5
Preface......Page 7
SOCIETAL IMPORTANCE......Page 8
THE RESEARCH CHALLENGE......Page 9
References......Page 12
3. Reaction Order......Page 13
5. Kinetic Theory of Chemical Reactions......Page 14
6. Photochemical Reactions......Page 15
7. Tropospheric Chemistry and Self-Cleaning of the Atmosphere......Page 16
9. Nitrogen and Other Trace Gas Cycles......Page 17
10. Tropospheric Ozone......Page 18
11. Stratospheric Ozone......Page 20
References......Page 21
1. Introduction......Page 22
2.2. Physical Size Distributions: Number, SurfaceArea, Volume......Page 23
2.3. Removal Processes......Page 24
2.4. Aerosol Hygroscopicity......Page 25
2.5. Cloud Processing......Page 26
2.6. Chemical Properties......Page 27
3.1. Sea Salt......Page 29
3.2. Sulfate Aerosols......Page 30
3.4. Carbon-Containing Aerosols......Page 32
3.5. Mineral Dust......Page 33
4. Nucleation and the Formatio n of NewParticles in Marine Air......Page 34
5. Large -Scale Characterization of the Marine Aerosol......Page 36
References......Page 38
1. Introduction: Dust in the Earth System......Page 41
2. Present-Day Sources and Controlson Dust......Page 47
3. Past Controls on Dust: A Testof Our Understanding?......Page 49
4. Future Changes in Dust and the Role of Humans......Page 52
5. Summary......Page 54
References......Page 56
1. Introduction......Page 60
2. Meteorological Conditions Required for MBL Clouds......Page 61
3. Microphysical Aspects of Cloud Formation......Page 63
4. Radiative Properties of MBL Clouds......Page 66
References......Page 70
1. Introduction......Page 72
2.1. Two-Film Model......Page 73
2.2. Waterside versus Airside Control......Page 74
2.4. The Schmidt Number......Page 75
2.7. Surface Penetration Theory......Page 76
2.9. Bubble-Mediated Gas Transfer......Page 77
3.2. The Effect of Waves......Page 79
3.4. The Effect of Temperature and Humidity......Page 80
3.6. The Effect of Surfactants......Page 81
4.2. Atmospheric Oxygen/Nitrogen Ratios......Page 82
5.3. Mass Balance of Biogenic Gases......Page 83
5.4. Deliberate Tracer Experiments......Page 84
5.5. Controlled Heat Flux......Page 85
6.1. Direct Covariance Theory......Page 86
6.2. Direct Covariance?Carbon Dioxide Fluxes......Page 87
6.3. Direct Covariance?Dimethyl Sulfide......Page 88
6.5. Waterside Direct Covariance......Page 89
6.6. Relaxed Eddy Accumulation......Page 90
6.8. Summary of Field Data......Page 91
7.1. Wind Speed-Based Parameterizations......Page 92
7.3. The NOAA-COARE Parameterization......Page 93
8. Future Work......Page 95
References......Page 96
Ocean Circulation......Page 101
2. PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN THEPRESENT CLIMATE......Page 102
3. ABRUPT CLIMATE CHANGE IN PAST CLIMATES......Page 110
4. FUTURE CHANGES IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY AND BEYOND......Page 114
5. CONCLUSIONS......Page 117
REFERENCES......Page 118
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 121
2. MODES OF NUTRITION......Page 122
3. PHYTOPLANKTON......Page 123
4. BACTERIOPLANKTON AND ARCHAEOPLANKTON......Page 129
5. ZOOPLANKTON......Page 130
6. PRIMARY PRODUCTION......Page 131
8. THE REDFIELD RATIO, NEW PRODUCTION,EXPORT PRODUCTION, AND THEBIOLOGICAL PUMP......Page 134
REFERENCES......Page 136
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 140
2. MACRONUTRIENTS AND PHYTOPLANKTON......Page 141
3. NUTRIENT SUPPLY VERSUS DEMAND IN THE MODERN OCEAN......Page 150
4. THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE OF NITROGEN......Page 153
5. FLEXING THE REDFIELD RATIO: FROMCULTURES TO THE OLIGOTROPHIC OCEAN......Page 154
7. MACRONUTRIENTS IN THE OCEAN:FUTURE TRENDS......Page 157
REFERENCES......Page 158
1. Introduction......Page 162
2.1. Iron and the Periodic Table......Page 163
2.4. Iron-Binding Ligands and Complexation......Page 166
3.1. Terrestrial Sources of Iron......Page 168
3.3. Recycling of Iron......Page 171
4. The Biogeochemical Cycle of Iron: A Case Study, FeCycle......Page 172
5.1. How to Track a Mesoscale Iron Enrichment......Page 173
5.3. Iron Fertilization: Is It a Climate Mitigation Strategy?......Page 176
References......Page 177
1. Introduction......Page 181
2.2. Inorganic Carbon Chemistry......Page 182
2.3. Transport and Mixing......Page 184
2.4. Biological Processes......Page 185
3.1. Mechanisms of Uptake......Page 186
3.2. Methods of Determination......Page 187
4.1. Chemical Changes......Page 188
4.2. Circulation/Mixing Changes......Page 190
4.4. Climate-Carbon Coupling......Page 192
References......Page 193
1.1. A Brief History: The Gaia Hypothesis......Page 196
1.2. The CLAW Hypothesis......Page 197
2.1. Introduction to the Global Sulfur Cycle......Page 198
3. The Marine DMS Cycle......Page 200
3.3. Physiological Functions for DMSP......Page 201
3.4. Marine Sources for DMS......Page 203
3.5. Marine Sinks for DMS......Page 207
3.6. Observation of DMS Sea-Surface Concentrations......Page 208
4.1. A Brief Introduction to Cloud Formation......Page 210
4.3. From DMS to MSA and SO2: AtmosphericOxidation Processes......Page 211
4.5. Cloud Albedo and Cloud Lifetime......Page 212
4.6. Atmospheric Observations of DMS-Derived Aerosolsand CCN......Page 213
4.8. Current Problems in Our Understanding ofAtmospheric DMS Cycling......Page 215
5. Modeling Marine DMS Dynamics......Page 217
5.2. Modeling Marine DMS Dynamics: PrognosticApproaches......Page 218
5.3. Global Estimates of DMS Fluxes in a Future Climate......Page 219
6.2. DMS and Iron Fertilization......Page 221
6.3. DMS and Ocean Acidification......Page 223
References......Page 224
1. Introduction......Page 232
2.1. Large-Scale Circulation Close to Coasts......Page 233
2.2. Physical Processes Over Continental Shelves......Page 235
3. Biogeochemistry......Page 237
4.2. Coastal Eutrophication and Hypoxia......Page 243
5. Summary and Conclusions......Page 246
References......Page 247
1. INTRODUCTION: USING THE PAST TO CONSTRAIN THE FUTURE......Page 250
2. THE GLACIAL-INTERGLACIAL CO2 PROBLEM......Page 251
3. HOW IT WORKS: A HITCHHIKER’S GUIDE TO THE MARINE CARBON CYCLE......Page 252
4. HELP FROM OCEAN MUDS: PALEOCEANOGRAPHIC PROXIES......Page 258
5. WHAT CAUSED THE ~70- TO 90-PPM GLACIAL-TO -INTERGLACIAL CHANGE IN ATMOSPHERIC CO2?......Page 262
6. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK......Page 276
REFERENCES......Page 277
1. Introduction......Page 286
2.1. Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 287
2.2. Elements of Radiometry for Remote Sensing......Page 288
2.4. The Propagation of Light in the Atmosphere......Page 289
3.1. Satellite Orbits......Page 290
3.3. Spectral and Radiometric Resolutions......Page 291
4.1. General Comment......Page 292
4.2. The Cloud Properties......Page 293
4.4. The Ocean Color Radiometry......Page 294
5. Concluding Remarks......Page 298
References......Page 299
2.1. What Is the Goal of Data Assimilation?......Page 301
2.3. Representation of a Model......Page 302
2.4. Observations......Page 303
2.5. Minimization Algorithms......Page 304
3. The General Concept: Bayesian Approach......Page 305
4.3. Variational Approach: 3-D VAR......Page 306
5. Evolutionary Methods......Page 307
5.1. Sequential Methods: Extended Kalman Filter......Page 308
5.2. 4-D VAR Method......Page 309
6.2. Oceanography......Page 310
References......Page 314
1. Introduction......Page 316
2. Physical Processes......Page 317
3.1. Atmospheric Chemistry......Page 318
3.2. Marine Chemistry......Page 319
4. Biological Processes......Page 320
4.3. Nutrient-Phytoplankton-Zooplankton-Detritus Models......Page 322
5.3. Cost Functions, Model Efficiency, and Model Bias......Page 323
References......Page 324
Index......Page 326