Surface Modification of Titanium Dental Implants

Preface
Contents
Titanium: The Ideal Dental Implant Material Choice
	1 Introduction
	2 Osseointegration
	3 Materials for Endosseous Dental Implants
		3.1 Materials of Historical Interest
		3.2 Currently Used Materials
	4 Titanium and Its Alloys
		4.1 Titanium in Its Elemental Form
		4.2 Titanium in Alloyed Form
		4.3 Physical Properties of Titanium and Its Alloys
		4.4 Mechanical Properties of Titanium and Its Alloys
		4.5 Biological Properties of Titanium and Its Alloys
			4.5.1 Oxide Coating
			4.5.2 Metal Ion Leakage
	5 Conclusions and Future Directions
	References
Titanium Dental Implants in Compromised Conditions: Need for Enhanced Bioactivity and Therapy
	1 Introduction
	2 Ageing
	3 Periodontal Disease
	4 Smoking
	5 Diabetes
	6 Cardiovascular Disease
	7 Bleeding Disorders
	8 Head and Neck Cancer
	9 Bone Diseases
		9.1 Osteoporosis
		9.2 Paget’s Disease
		9.3 Cementoosseous Dysplasia
		9.4 Fibrous Dysplasia
		9.5 Osteogenesis Imperfecta
		9.6 Medication-Induced Osteonecrosis of the Jaw (MRONJ)
	10 Autoimmune Diseases
		10.1 Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
		10.2 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)
		10.3 Scleroderma
		10.4 Sjögren’s Syndrome (SS)
		10.5 Crohn’s Disease
	11 Organ Transplantation
	12 HIV and AIDS
	13 Titanium Allergy
	14 Conclusions and Future Directions
	References
Macro to Micro: Surface Modification of Titanium Dental Implants
	1 Roughness of Implant Surfaces: Definition and Classification
	2 History of Surface Modifications
	3 Macro-scale Design of Dental Implant Surfaces
		3.1 Implant Body Shape
		3.2 Various Geometric Thread Patterns
		3.3 Different Connection Between the Implant and the Abutment
		3.4 Surface Modifications on the Neck of Dental Implants
	4 Micro-scale Design of Dental Implant Surfaces
		4.1 Strategies of Micro-scale Surface Modifications
			4.1.1 Sandblasted, Large-Grit and Acid-Etched (SLA)
			4.1.2 Plasma Spraying Deposition
			4.1.3 Anodic Oxidation
			4.1.4 Laser Surface Processing
			4.1.5 Other Modifications
		4.2 Biological Response to Micro-rough Implant Surfaces: Cellular Responses, Gene Expression and In Vivo Tests
	5 Contemporary Implant Surface: Clinical Application and Evidence
	6 Future Directions
	References
Nano-scale Surface Modification of Dental Implants: Fabrication
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Titanium: The Gold Standard in Dentistry
		1.2 Nano-scale Surface Modification of Ti Dental Implants
		1.3 Current Nanoscale Surface Modification Methods of Ti Dental Implants
	2 Nanoscale Surface Modification
		2.1 Physical
			2.1.1 PVD Magnetron Sputtering
			2.1.2 Laser Patterning
				Laser Ablation
				Laser Pulse Deposition (LPD)
				Matrix-Assisted Pulsed Laser Evaporation (MAPLE)
				Direct Laser Interference Pattering (DLIP)
		2.2 Chemical
			2.2.1 Supramolecular Modifications
				SA-Based Antimicrobial Peptides and Antibodies
				Layer-by-Layer (LBL) Assembly
		2.3 Electrochemical
			2.3.1 What is Anodization?
			2.3.2 Factors Influencing Anodization
				Applied Voltage and Treatment Time
				Electrolyte Temperature and Annealing
				Electrolyte Aging
			2.3.3 Anodization of Dental Implants: Complex Implant and Geometry
				Dual Micro-nanostructures
			2.3.4 Post-functionalization
				Polymeric Coatings
				Nano-particles
	3 Conclusions and Future Directions
	References
From Micro to Nano: Surface Modification for Enhanced Bioactivity of Titanium Dental Implants
	1 Introduction
	2 Microscale Surface Modification
		2.1 Enhancing Osseointegration
			2.1.1 Physical and Chemical Modifications
			2.1.2 Incorporation of Bioactive Agents
		2.2 Microscale Approaches to Enhance Soft Tissue Integration (STI)
			2.2.1 Surface Topography Modification
			2.2.2 Chemical Approaches
			2.2.3 Coating with Proteins
	3 Nano-engineered Implants for Enhanced Osseointegration
		3.1 Laser Treatment
		3.2 Chemical Modification
		3.3 Deposition with Nanoparticles (NPs)
		3.4 Electrochemically Anodized Implants
	4 Nano-Engineered Ti Implants for Augmenting Soft-Tissue Integration
		4.1 Influence of Nanoscale Roughness on Epithelial Cells and Fibroblasts
		4.2 Nanogeometries on Augmenting Soft-Tissue Integration
		4.3 Tailoring the Immune-Inflammatory Responses
	5 Research Gaps and Future Perspectives
	6 Conclusions
	References
Local Therapy from Nano-engineered Titanium Dental Implants
	1 Introduction
	2 Local Therapy for Immunomodulation
	3 Local Therapy for Osseointegration
	4 Local Therapy for Soft Tissue Integration
	5 Local Therapy for Antibacterial Efficacy
	6 Strategies of Regulating Drug Release
		6.1 Altering TNTs Dimensions
		6.2 Polymeric Modifications of TNTs
		6.3 Encapsulation of Drug in Nano-carriers
		6.4 Triggered Therapy
			6.4.1 Enzyme Trigger
			6.4.2 pH Trigger
			6.4.3 Electrical Triggers/Electrical Stimulation Therapy (EST)
			6.4.4 Magnetic Field
			6.4.5 Radiofrequency (RF)
			6.4.6 Near Infra-Red (NIR)
			6.4.7 Visible Light
			6.4.8 Ultrasound Waves (USW)
	7 Research Challenges and Future Directions
	8 Conclusion
	References
Mechanical Stability of Anodized Nano-engineered Titanium Dental Implants
	1 Introduction
	2 Enhancing Stability of Anodized Ti Dental Implants
		2.1 Fabrication Optimization
		2.2 Physical Treatments
		2.3 Chemical Treatments
	3 Testing Mechanical Stability of Anodized Dental Implants
		3.1 Electrochemical Stability in Saliva
		3.2 Stability During Sterilization
	4 Testing Stability Post-implantation
		4.1 Ex Vivo Implantation
		4.2 In Vivo Implantation
	5 Future Directions and Conclusions
	References
Cytotoxicity, Corrosion and Electrochemical Stability of Titanium Dental Implants
	1 Corrosion of Ti Implants
		1.1 Reasons for Ti Implant Degradation
			1.1.1 Mechanical Corrosion
			1.1.2 Chemical and Electrochemical Degradations
			1.1.3 Tribocorrosion
		1.2 Factors Influencing Ti Corrosion/Degradation
		1.3 Importance of Augmenting Anti-corrosion Capacity of Ti Implants (Cytotoxicity Concerns)
			1.3.1 Molecular Interactions
			1.3.2 Cellular Interactions
				Immune Cells
				Bone Cells
				Other Cells
			1.3.3 Tissue Interactions
	2 Physical Modification and Utilizing Ti Alloys
		2.1 SLA Implants and Corrosion
		2.2 Cryogenic Treatment
		2.3 Alloying of Ti
	3 Surface Chemical Modification to Augment Corrosion Resistance
		3.1 Nitriding
		3.2 Coating with Calcium Phosphate (CaP)
		3.3 Micro-arc Oxidisation (MAO)
		3.4 Plasma Spraying
		3.5 Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation (PIII)
			3.5.1 Nitrogen Treatment
			3.5.2 Oxygen Treatment
			3.5.3 Carbon Treatment
	4 Ti Implant Nano-engineering
		4.1 Nano-crystallinzation
		4.2 Nanowires
		4.3 Anodised Nanostructures
	5 Research Gaps and Future Directions
	6 Conclusions
	References
Index