Structural Geology Principles, Concepts, and Problems

Cover
Structural Geology
Dedication
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface to the Third Edition
Acknowledgments
PART 1: Introduction
	1: Introduction
		Plate Tectonics
		Equilibrium
		Geologic Cycles
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	2: Fundamental Concepts and Nontectonic Structures
		Fundamental Concepts
		Primary Sedimentary Structures
			Bedding
			Mud Cracks
			Ripple Marks
			Rain Imprints
			Tracks and Trails
			Sole Marks, Scour Marks, Flute Casts
			Dewatering Structures
			Fossils
			Reduction Spots
		Sedimentary Facies
		Unconformities
		Primary Igneous Structures
		Gravity-Related Features
			Landslides and Submarine Flows
		ESSAY: Deciphering a Major Structure in the Southern Highlands of Scotland
			Salt Structures
		Impact Structures
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	3: Geochronology in Structural Geology
		Geochronology
			Radioactivity and Isotope Geochronology
			Closure Temperature
			Assumptions
			Radioisotopic Dating Techniques
			Cosmogenic Surface Exposure Dating
			The Vital Role of Geochronology in Structural Geology
		Stable Isotopes
		ESSAY: Rock Bodies That Appear to Be the Same in the Field May Not Turn Out to Be When Their Ages Are Determined
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	4: Geophysical Techniques and Earth Structure
		Seismic Reflection
		Seismic Refraction
		Earthquakes and Seismic Waves
			Earthquake Waves and Whole-Earth Structure
			Locating Earthquakes
			Earthquake Magnitude and Intensity
			Seismic Tomography
			Focal Mechanisms and “Beach Balls”
		Potential Field Methods
			Terrestrial Magnetism
			Remanent Magnetism
			Magnetic Reversals
			Induced Magnetism
			Applications Using Magnetism
		Gravity
			Applications Using Gravity
		Electrical Methods
		Borehole Geophysics
			Natural Gamma-Ray Log
		ESSAY: Geophysical Data and the Structure of Mountain Chains
			Electrical Logs
			Photoelectric Logs
			Neutron Logs
			Temperature, Caliper, and Sonic Logs
			Utility of Conventional Geophysical Logs—Geology from Wiggly Lines
			Borehole Imaging Logs
			Suspension Logging
			Vertical Seismic Profiles
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
PART 2: Mechanics: How Rocks Deform
	5: Stress
		Definitions
		Stress on a Plane
			Mohr Circle Derivation
		Mohr Construction
		Amontons’ Law and the Coulomb–Mohr Hypothesis
		Stress Ellipsoid
		Stress at a Point
		Measuring Present-Day Stress in the Earth
		ESSAY: The Earthquake Cycle
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	6: Strain and Strain Measurement
		Definitions
		Measures of Strain
		Strain Ellipse and Ellipsoid
		Simple, General, and Pure Shear
		ESSAY: Daubrée and Mead Experiment
		Progressive Deformation, Strain Symmetry, and Strain Path
		Mohr Circle for Strain
		Tensor Operations for Strain
		Measuring Strain in Rocks
		Strain Measurement Techniques
			Linear Markers
			Initially Elliptical Markers
		From Two to Three Dimensions
		The Utility of Strain Analysis
		Concluding Thoughts
		ESSAY: Finite Strain from Deformed Pebbles
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	7: Mechanical Behavior of Rock Materials
		Definitions
		Elastic (Hookean) Behavior
		Permanent Deformation—Ductility
			Viscous Behavior
			Plastic (Saint-Venant) Behavior
			Elasticoviscous (Maxwell) Behavior
		Controlling Factors
		Behavior of Crustal Rocks
			Ductile-Brittle Transition
		ESSAY: Jelly Sandwiches, Crème Brûlée, and the Mechanical Behavior of the Lithosphere
		Strain Partitioning
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	8: Microstructures and Deformation Mechanisms
		Lattice Defects and Dislocations
			Point Defects
			Line Defects—Dislocations
			Planar Defects—Stacking Faults
			Translation (Dislocation) and Twin Gliding
		Deformation Mechanisms
			Cataclasis
			Creep Processes
			Superplastic Flow
		Geochemical Processes
			Mass-Transfer Processes
			Factors That Influence the Rates of Chemical Reactions
		Microstructures
			Inclusion Trails and Deformation Lamellae
			Unrecovered Strain, Recovery, and Recrystallization
		Crystallographic Preferred Orientations
		Laboratory Models of Deformation Processes
		Final Thoughts
		ESSAY: Fault Rocks—A Fourth Class of Rocks
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
PART 3: Fractures and Faults
	9: Joints and Shear Fractures
		ESSAY: Fracking
		Fracture Analysis
			Significance of Orientation
			Fracture Formation in the Present-Day Stress Field
			Fold- and Fault-Related Joints
		Fracture Mechanics: Griffith Theory
		Joints and Fracture Mechanics
		Fracture Surface Morphology
		Joints in Plutons
		Nontectonic and Quasitectonic Fractures
			Sheeting
			Columnar Joints and Mud Cracks
		ESSAY: Mesozoic Fracturing of Eastern North American Crust—Product of Extension or Shear?
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	10: Faults and Shear Zones
		Fault Anatomy
		Anderson’s Classification
		Recognizing Faults
		ESSAY: Seismic Risk Associated with Tectonic Structures
		Shear Zones
		Shear-Sense Indicators
			Composite Foliations
		Strain in Ductile Shear Zones
		Brittle Shear Zones
		ESSAY: Existence and Displacement Sense of Large Faults
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	11: Fault Mechanics
		Anderson’s Mechanics and Fundamental Assumptions
		Anderson’s Fault Types
			Type 1. Thrust Faults
			Type 2. Strike-Slip Faults
			Type 3. Normal Faults
		Role of Fluids
		Frictional Sliding Mechanisms
		Movement Mechanisms
			Fault Surfaces and Frictional Sliding
		Shear (Frictional) Heating In Fault Zones
		Reality of Fault Mechanics
		ESSAY: Artificial Earthquakes
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	12: Thrust Faults
		Nature of Thrust Faults
		Detachment Within a Sedimentary Sequence
		Propagation and Termination of Thrusts
		Features Produced by Erosion
		ESSAY: Debate About Thrust Faults
		Crystalline Thrusts
		ESSAY: Gravity Model Foldbelt
		Cross-Section Construction and the Room Problem
		Thrust Mechanics
		Mechanics of Crystalline Thrusts
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	13: Strike-Slip Faults
		Properties and Geometry
		Tectonic Setting of Strike-Slip Faulting
		Geometry Related to Other Fault Types
		Terminations of Strike-Slip Faults
		Releasing and Restraining Bends
		Transtension and Transpression
		Transforms
		Mechanics of Strike-Slip Faulting
		ESSAY: Rigid Indenters and Escape Tectonics
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	14: Normal Faults
		Properties and Geometry
		Environments and Mechanics
			Growth Faults
			Rift Zones
			Regional Crustal Extension
			Hyperextension of Continental Crust and Mantle
			Oceanic Core Complexes
			Collapse Structures and Related Features
			Relationship to Strike-Slip Faults
			Final Thoughts
		ESSAY: Inverted Faults and Tectonic Inheritance
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
PART 4: Folds and Folding
	15: Anatomy of Folds
		Descriptive Anatomy of Folds
			Fold Anatomy
			Kinds of Folds
			Fold Shape
			Use of Parasitic Folds in Determining Position in a Fold
		ESSAY: Gravity–Driven Soft-Sediment Folds and Faults
		Folds at Map and Cross Section Scale
		Fold Classifications
			Ramsay’s Classification
			Donath and Parker Classification
			Which Classification to Use?
		ESSAY: Folds and the Development of the Petroleum Industry
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	16: Fold Mechanics
		Fold Mechanisms and Accompanying Phenomena
			Bending
			Buckling
			Flexural Slip
			Parallel and Similar Folds
			Passive Slip—A Problematical Mechanism
			Kink Folding
			Flexural Flow
			Passive Flow (Passive Amplification)
			Combined Mechanisms
		Deformation Mechanisms and Strain
		Discussion
			Nucleation and Growth of Folds
		ESSAY: A Tale of Two Folds: Deciphering the Fold Mechanisms of Two Small Folds
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	17: Complex Folds
		Occurrence and Recognition
		Superposed Folds and Fold Interference Patterns
			Type 0
			Type 1
			Type 2
			Type 3
			Modifications
		Recognition of Multiple Fold Phases
		Noncylindrical and Sheath Folds
		Formation of Complex Folds
		Mechanical Implications of Complex Folding
		ESSAY: The Value of Rosetta Stones
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
PART 5: Fabrics and Structural Analysis
	18: Cleavage and Foliations
		Definitions
		Cleavage-Bedding Relationships
		Cleavage Refraction
		Mechanics of Slaty Cleavage Formation
		ESSAY: Early Ideas on the Origin of Slaty Cleavage
		Progressive Cleavage Development in Fine-Grained Sediment
		Strain and Formation of Slaty Cleavage
		Crenulation Cleavage
		Cleavage Fans and Transecting Cleavages
		Transposition
		ESSAY: Cleavage Formation and the Identification of Elephants
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	19: Linear Structures
		Definitions
			Nonpenetrative Linear Structures
			Penetrative Linear Structures
			Boudinage
		Lineations as Flow and Transport Indicators
		Folds and Lineations
		Folded Lineations
		Interpretation of Linear Structures
		ESSAY: Pitfalls in Interpreting Linear Structures
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	20: Structural Geology of Plutons
		The Nature of Magma
		Distinguishing Magmatic from Solid-State Tectonic Structures
		The Enigma of Tabular Pluton Emplacement
		Emplacement of Stocks and Batholiths
		ESSAY: A Tale of Two Plutons
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
	21: Structural Analysis
		Cross-Section Analysis
		Deformation Plan in an Orogen
		Structural Analysis Procedures
			Geologic Mapping
			Mesoscopic Structural Analysis
			Domain Analysis
			Microtextural Studies
			Finite- and Incremental-Strain Studies
			Fracture Analysis
			Chronology of Development of Structures
		Structural Analysis in Foreland Fold-Thrust Belts (Fftbs)
		Structural Analysis of Multiply Deformed Rocks in the Cores of Orogens
		ESSAY: Historical Development of Structural Analysis Methods in Metamorphic Rocks
		Structural Analysis of Multiply Deformed and Transposed Rocks
			Pitfalls in Using Style and Orientation in Polyphase-Deformed Rocks
		ESSAY: Structural Analysis at Woodall Shoals
		Analysis of Salt Structures
		Structural Analysis in Continental Interiors
		Structural Analysis in Seismically Active Regions—Insight into Paleoseismology
			Background
			Structural Analysis of the Lima Reservoir Fault
			Chapter Highlights
			Questions
			Further Reading
PART 6: Appendices
	Appendix 1: Structural Measurements and Observations
		Directional Reference Frame and Location
		Orientation of Planes: Strike and Dip
		Orientation of Lines: Trend and Plunge; Rake
		Recording Data
	Appendix 2: Stereographic Projections and Fabric Diagrams
		How to Begin Plotting Manually
		Plotting Planar Structures
		Plotting Linear Structures
		Locating Fold Axes Using Equal-Area Plots: β and π Diagrams
			β Diagrams
			π Diagrams
		Contouring Data
	Appendix 3: Structural Cross Sections—Methods for Cross-Section Construction
		Introduction
		Rules of Cross-Section Construction
			1. Surface Topography
			2. Transferring Geologic Contacts from Map to the Section
			3. Transfer of Dip Orientations from the Geologic Map to the Cross Section
			4. Maintaining Constant Thickness
			5. Thickness of Rock Units Related to Dip Angle
			6. Vertical Exaggeration and Scale
			7. Section Location and Map Name
			8. Explanation of Rock Unit Symbols
			9. Use of and Projection of Data from the Section Line
			10. Calculation of Dip of All Contacts from Outcrop Patterns
		Editorial Tips for Constructing Cross Sections
		Taking Cross Sections to the Next Level—Cross-Section Balancing
			Introduction
			Balanced Section Construction
			Limitations
	Appendix 4: Woodall Shoals Fabric Data
Glossary
References Cited
Index