Structural Characterization and Seismic Retrofitting of Adobe Constructions: Experimental and Numerical Developments

Preface
Contents
1 Adobe Constructions in the World: A First Overview
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Adobe Construction Across Multiple Ages and Countries
	3 Structural Features and Performance of Adobe Constructions
	4 Contribution of Institutions for the Conservation of Buildings with Cultural Value
	5 Conclusions
	References
2 Behaviour of Adobe Construction in Recent Earthquakes
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Behaviour of Adobe Constructions During the Iran Earthquake, 2013
		2.1 Out-of-Plane Wall Failure
		2.2 In-Plane Wall Failure
		2.3 Failure of Roof
	3 Behaviour of Adobe Constructions During the Maden-(Elazığ) Earthquake, 2011
		3.1 Out-of-Plane Failure
		3.2 In-Plane Failure
		3.3 Failure of Roof
		3.4 Corner Damages
	4 Behaviour of Adobe Constructions During the Pisco Earthquake, 2007
		4.1 Out-of-Plane Failure
		4.2 In-Plane Failure
		4.3 Quality of the Constructions Materials
		4.4 Construction on Developing Areas
		4.5 Damage in Earthen Historical Landmarks
	5 Behaviour of a Historic Adobe Church During the San Simeon Earthquake in California, 2003
		5.1 Out-of-Plane Failure
		5.2 In-Plane Failure
	6 Concluding Remark
	References
3 Mechanical Characterization of Adobe Bricks
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Codes, Standards and Technical Recommendations
	3 Research on the Mechanical Behaviour of Adobe Bricks Under Simple Compression
		3.1 Adobe Bricks Main Characteristics
		3.2 Specimens and Testing Procedures
			3.2.1 Specimens Geometry
			3.2.2 Specimens Preparation
			3.2.3 Testing Procedures
			3.2.4 Deformation Measurement
			3.2.5 Standards
		3.3 Compressive Strength
		3.4 Stress-Strain Curves
		3.5 Young’s Modulus
		3.6 Strain at Peak Strength
		3.7 Poisson’s Ratio
		3.8 Failure Mode
		3.9 Comparison with Normative Limits
	4 Conclusions and Final Remarks
	References
4 Mechanical Characterization of Adobe Masonry
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Standards and Technical Recommendations
	3 Research on the Mechanical Behaviour of Adobe Masonry
		3.1 Compressive Behaviour
			3.1.1 Adobe Masonry Specimens: Materials and Geometry
			3.1.2 Testing Procedures
			3.1.3 Compressive Strength
			3.1.4 Young’s Modulus
			3.1.5 Strain at Peak Strength
			3.1.6 Poisson’s Ratio
			3.1.7 Stress–Strain Curves
			3.1.8 Failure Mode
		3.2 Shear Behaviour
			3.2.1 Adobe Masonry Specimens: Materials and Geometry
			3.2.2 Testing Procedures
			3.2.3 Shear Strength
			3.2.4 Shear Modulus
			3.2.5 Stress–Strain Curves
			3.2.6 Failure Mode
		3.3 Joint Shear Behaviour
			3.3.1 Adobe Masonry Specimens: Materials and Geometry
			3.3.2 Testing Procedures
			3.3.3 Cohesion, Friction Angle
			3.3.4 Failure Mode
	4 Conclusions and Final Remarks
	References
5 Quasi-static In-Plane Testing of Adobe Masonry Walls and Structures
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Test Performed at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru
		2.1 Wall Characteristics
		2.2 Experimental Tests
		2.3 Result’s Discussion
		2.4 Evaluation of the Modulus of Elasticity E
			2.4.1 Wall I-1
			2.4.2 Wall I-2 and I-3
			2.4.3 Effect of Wide Flanged Walls on the Modulus of Elasticity E
		2.5 Capacity Curve for Adobe Walls
		2.6 Evaluation of the Equivalent Viscous Damping in Adobe Walls
	3 Test Performed at University of Naples Federico II
		3.1 Wall Characteristics
		3.2 Experimental Test
		3.3 Result’s Discussion
	4 Test Performed at University of Aveiro
		4.1 Wall Characteristics
		4.2 Experimental Test
		4.3 Result’s Discussion
			4.3.1 Stress-Drift Relationship
			4.3.2 Lateral Displacement Profile
			4.3.3 Dissipated Energy and Equivalent Damping Ratio
			4.3.4 Natural Frequency
			4.3.5 Damage Pattern
	5 Conclusions
	References
6 Shaking Table Testing of Adobe Masonry Structures
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Shaking Tables and Test Set up
	3 Shaking Table Adobe Research Programs in the World
		3.1 Peru
		3.2 United States of America
		3.3 Mexico
		3.4 Guatemala
		3.5 Colombia
		3.6 Argentina
		3.7 Portugal
		3.8 Japan
		3.9 China
		3.10 Australia
		3.11 New Zealand
	4 Concluding Remarks
	References
7 Non-destructive (NDT) and Minor-destructive (MDT) Testing Tools to Support the Structural Characterization of Adobe Constructions
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 NDT and MDT: Fundamentals
		2.1 Definition and Purpose
		2.2 Description of Select NDT and MDT
			2.2.1 Photogrammetry for Geometrical Survey
			2.2.2 Infrared Thermography
			2.2.3 Sonic Pulse Velocity NDT
			2.2.4 Flat Jack Tests for the Characterization of the Structural Systems
			2.2.5 Operational Modal Analysis for Structural System Characterization
			2.2.6 Modal Analysis with External Excitation
	3 Applications of NDT and MDT for the Structural Assessment of Existing Adobe Buildings
		3.1 Case History 1: Complex of Chokepukio, Cusco, Peru
		3.2 Case History 2: The Church of ‘Santiago Apostol’ of Andahuaylillas, Peru
		3.3 Case History 3: The Church of Virgen de la Asunción of Sacsamarca, in Ayacucho, Peru
		3.4 Case History 4: Moche Culture Earthen Pyramid the “Huaca de la Luna” in Trujillo, Perú
	4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	Acknowledgements
	References
8 Seismic Strengthening Techniques for Adobe Construction
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Internal Strengthening Systems
		2.1 Grout Injections
		2.2 Bed-Joint Reinforcement
	3 External Strengthening Systems
		3.1 Rope and Cane-Rope Grid Systems
		3.2 Timber Caging
		3.3 Ferrocement-like Strengthening Systems
		3.4 Steel Tensioners
		3.5 Synthetic and Natural Polymer Grids
			3.5.1 Geopolymer Meshes
			3.5.2 Polypropylene Band Meshes
			3.5.3 Natural Fibre Composite Grids
		3.6 Car Tire Straps
	4 Concluding Remarks
	References
9 Numerical Modelling of Adobe Structures
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Finite Element Modelling
		2.1 Detailed Micro-Modelling
		2.2 Simplified Micro-Modelling
		2.3 Macro-Modelling
	3 Discrete Element Modelling
	4 Equivalent Frame Modelling
	5 Concluding Remarks
	References
10 Research Developments and Needs on Seismic Performance and Strengthening of Adobe Masonry Constructions
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Mechanical Characterization of Adobe Bricks
	3 Mechanical Characterization of Adobe Masonry
	4 Quasi-Static Testing of Walls and Structures
	5 Shaking Table Testing of Walls and Structures
	6 Non-destructive and Minor-Destructive Testing Techniques
	7 Seismic Strengthening Techniques
	8 Numerical Simulation Methods
	9 Conclusions
	References