Stress Physiology of Woody Plants

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
About the Editor
Contributors
Chapter 1: Woody Plant Structure
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Woody Plant Classifications
	1.3 Leaves
		1.3.1 Angiosperm Leaves
		1.3.2 Gymnosperm Leaves
		1.3.3 Epicuticular Waxes
	1.4 Stems
		1.4.1 Stem Structure and Functions
		1.4.2 Secondary Growth in Stems
		1.4.3 Suckers vs. Watersprouts
		1.4.4 Stem Modifications
	1.5 Wood Formation
		1.5.1 Xylem Tissue and Function
		1.5.2 Xylem: Sapwood and Heartwood
		1.5.3 Xylem Water Movement
		1.5.4 Rays
		1.5.5 Reaction Wood
	1.6 Bark
	1.7 Roots
		1.7.1 Root Development
			1.7.1.1 Adventitious Roots
		1.7.2 Roots and Soil Organisms
	1.8 Flowers
		1.8.1 Angiosperm Flowers
		1.8.2 Gymnosperm Flowers
		1.8.3 Inflorescences
		1.8.4 Pollination and Fertilization
	1.9 Fruits
		1.9.1 Gymnosperm Fruits
	1.10 Seed
	Bibliography
Chapter 2: Plant Growth and Development
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Seed Development and Dormancy
		2.2.1 The Seed Contains the Embryo
		2.2.2 Hormonal Influences on Embryo Development
		2.2.3 Seed Maturation
		2.2.4 Maintenance and Release of Seed Dormancy
		2.2.5 Hormonal Control of Seed Dormancy
		2.2.6 Seed Germination
		2.2.7 Commercial Methods to Release Seed Dormancy
	2.3 Root Growth
		2.3.1 Root Structure and Development
		2.3.2 Factors Affecting Root Growth and Root System Architecture
	2.4 Shoot Growth
		2.4.1 Primary Growth of Shoots
		2.4.2 Origins and Functions of Shoot Primary Meristems
		2.4.3 Secondary Growth of Shoots
		2.4.4 Photomorphogenesis
		2.4.5 Shoot Resistance to Mechanical Stresses
		2.4.6 Bud Outgrowth and Lateral Shoot Growth Determine Canopy Architecture
		2.4.7 Hormonal Basis for Apical Dominance and Apical Control
		2.4.8 Types of Bud Dormancy and Their Control
		2.4.9 Endodormancy and Cold-Acclimation Are Distinct but Overlapping Processes
		2.4.10 Ecodormancy Is Imposed by the Environment
	2.5 Leaf Growth
		2.5.1 Leaf Structure and Development
		2.5.2 Leaf Development Responds to the Light Environment
		2.5.3 Leaf Senescence and Abscission
		2.5.4 Deciduous and Evergreen Leaves Represent Different Strategies
	2.6 Flower and Fruit Development
		2.6.1 Processes of Floral Initiation and Development
			2.6.1.1 Mechanisms of Floral Development
			2.6.1.2 Sexual Reproduction
			2.6.1.3 Polyploidy and Apomixis
		2.6.2 Fruits and Their Development
			2.6.2.1 Fruit Set and Fruit Growth
			2.6.2.2 Fruit Maturation and Ripening
			2.6.2.3 Dispersal Strategies
	2.7 Adaptation
		2.7.1 Evolution Is a Change in Allele Frequencies
		2.7.2 Adaptation Arises Locally
		2.7.3 Provenance Trials
		2.7.4 Adaptationism
		2.7.5 Challenges in the Study of Adaptation
		2.7.6 Adaptation in this Book
	References
Chapter 3: Photosynthesis and Respiration in Woody Plants
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Photosynthesis
		3.2.1 Photosynthesis Site
		3.2.2 Photosynthesis Stages
			3.2.2.1 Light Dependent (Light) Reactions
			3.2.2.2 Light Independent (Dark) Reactions
			3.2.2.3 C4 (Hatch–Slack) and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) Pathway
		3.2.3 Photosynthesis Rate and Its Influencing Factors in Woody Plants
			3.2.3.1 Variations in Photosynthesis Rate
			3.2.3.2 Diurnal and Seasonal Variations
			3.2.3.3 Environmental Factors Affecting Photosynthesis Rate
	3.3 Respiration
		3.3.1 Aerobic respiration
		3.3.2 Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation)
		3.3.3 Energy Usage
		3.3.4 Respiration Regulation at a Whole Plant Level
		3.3.5 Respiration Measurement and Rate
	3.4 Effects of Environmental Conditions on Respiration
		3.4.1 Temperature
		3.4.2 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
		3.4.3 Water
	3.5 Unique Features in Woody Plants
		3.5.1 Non-Foliar Photosynthesis
		3.5.2 Age-Related Changes in Photosynthesis
		3.5.3 Winter Photosynthesis in Evergreen Species
	References
Chapter 4: Plant Growth Regulation
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Plant Hormones and Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs)
	4.3 Roles of PGRs in Plant Growth and Regulation
		4.3.1 Abscisic Acid (ABA)
		4.3.2 Auxins
		4.3.3 Brassinosteroids
		4.3.4 Cytokinins
		4.3.5 Ethylene
		4.3.6 Gibberellins (GA)
		4.3.7 Jasmonic Acid (JA)
		4.3.8 MeJA
		4.3.9 Salicylic Acid (SA)
	4.4 Environmental Regulation of Plant Growth and Development
		4.4.1 Light-Mediated Entrainment of Plant Growth and Development
			4.4.1.1 Impact of Light Intensity on Plant Growth and Development
			4.4.1.2 Impact of Photoperiod on Plant Growth and Development
			4.4.1.3 Impact of Spectral Quality on Plant Growth and Development
			4.4.1.4 Photoreceptors – Masters Behind Light Perception
		4.4.2 Temperature-Mediated Entrainment of Plant Growth and Development
			4.4.2.1 Temperature-Mediated Flowering Response
			4.4.2.2 Temperature-Mediated Auxin Control
	4.5 Role of Plant Growth Regulators during Stress Alleviation of Plants
		4.5.1 Salicylic Acid in Stress Alleviation
		4.5.2 Jasmonic Acid in Stress Alleviation
		4.5.3 Methyl Jasmonate in Stress Alleviation
	References
Chapter 5: Plant Response to Drought Stress
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Water Relations of Woody Plants in a Nutshell: Water Transport in Plants
		5.1.2 Role of Water in Plant Growth and Development
		5.1.3 Water Potential and Stomatal Behavior
		5.1.4 Definitions of Drought
	5.2 Effect of Drought Stress on Tree Performance
		5.2.1 Plastic Morphological Responses
		5.2.2 Drought-Induced Mortality
	5.3 Plastic Physiological Responses
		5.3.1 Maintaining Turgor through Osmotic Adjustment
		5.3.2 Stomatal Closure in Response to Various Stimuli
		5.3.3 Oxidative Response
		5.3.4 Use of Carbon Reserves
		5.3.5 Hormonal Changes
		5.3.6 Root Adaptation and Mycorrhizae
		5.3.7 Whole-Plant Strategies for Drought Tolerance
	5.4 Molecular Responses to Water Stress
		5.4.1 Proteome Response to Drought Stress
		5.4.2 Transcriptome Response to Drought Stress
	5.5 Genetic Engineering for Drought Tolerance in Trees
		5.5.1 Improving the Oxidative Response
		5.5.2 Improvement of Osmotic Status
		5.5.3 Manipulation of Drought-Responsive Genes
	5.6 Water Stress as an Agricultural Tool
		5.6.1 Induction of Flowering
		5.6.2 Water Conservation
	5.7 Conclusions and Future Directions
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 6: Plant Response to Mineral Nutrient Deficiency
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Roles of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth and Development
		6.2.1 Macronutrients
			6.2.1.1 Nitrogen (N)
			6.2.1.2 Phosphorus (P)
			6.2.1.3 Potassium (K)
			6.2.1.4 Calcium (Ca)
			6.2.1.5 Magnesium (Mg)
			6.2.1.6 Sulfur (S)
		6.2.2 Micronutrients
			6.2.2.1 Iron (Fe)
			6.2.2.2 Manganese (Mn)
			6.2.2.3 Zinc (Zn)
			6.2.2.4 Copper (Cu)
			6.2.2.5 Boron (B)
			6.2.2.6 Chloride (Cl)
			6.2.2.7 Molybdenum (Mo)
			6.2.2.8 Nickel (Ni)
	6.3 Physiological and Molecular Responses of Woody Plants to Nutrient Deficiency
		6.3.1 Physiological Responses to Nutrient Deficiency
		6.3.2 Molecular Responses to Nutrient Deficiency
		6.3.3 Response to Fe Deficiency in Woody Plants
			6.3.3.1 Iron Uptake, Transport, and Metabolism in Plants
			6.3.3.2 Iron Availability in the Soil
			6.3.3.3 Plant Responses to Iron Deficiency
			6.3.3.4 Iron Homeostasis Regulation Genes in Plants
	6.4 Management of Mineral Nutrients Deficiency in Woody Plants
	References
Chapter 7: Plant Response to Salinity Stress
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Effects of Salinity and Sodicity on Soil Properties
		7.2.1 Chemical Properties
		7.2.2 Physical and Hydraulic Properties
	7.3 Problems with High Salinity in Woody Plants
		7.3.1 Responses of Woody Plants to Salinity Stress
		7.3.2 Factors Influencing the Severity of Salinity Stress
	7.4 Mechanisms of Salinity Damage
		7.4.1 Osmotic Stress
		7.4.2 Ion Toxicity and Imbalance
		7.4.3 Oxidative Stress
	7.5 Mechanisms of Salinity Tolerance
		7.5.1 Osmotic Adjustment
		7.5.2 Salt Overly Sensitive (SOS) Pathway
		7.5.3 Ion Secretion
		7.5.4 Tolerance to Oxidative Stress
		7.5.5 Dilution
	7.6 Molecular Information of Salinity Tolerance
	References
Chapter 8: Plant Response to Low Temperature
	8.1 Introduction
		8.1.1 Low Temperatures in Plant Life Cycles
		8.1.2 Photoperiod, Low Temperature, and Plant Dormancy
	8.2 Chilling Requirement and Plant Flowering
		8.2.1 Variations of Chilling Requirements in Deciduous Fruit Crops
		8.2.2 Chilling-Regulated Flowering in Deciduous Fruit Crops
		8.2.3 Primary Dormancy Genes in Deciduous Fruit Crops
	8.3 Acclimation, Dormancy, and Freezing Tolerance
		8.3.1 The APETALA2/Ethylene Response (AP2/ERF) Transcription Factors
		8.3.2 CBF/DREB1 Genes and Plant Freezing Tolerance
		8.3.3 Low-Temperature Regulatory Networks
	8.4 Potential Roles of Phytohormones in Plant Flowering, Dormancy, and
 Freezing Tolerance
		8.4.1 Phytohormones in Plant Cold Acclimation
		8.4.2 Phytohormones in Plant Dormancy
		8.4.3 Phytohormones in Plant Flowering
	8.5 Conclusion Remarks
	References
Chapter 9: Plant Response to Oxidative Stress
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Major Oxidative Species
	9.3 Oxidative Stress Effect on Plant Growth and Development
	9.4 Physiological Response to Oxidative Stress
	9.5 Molecular Response to Oxidative Stress
	9.6 Resistance and Tolerance to Oxidative Stress
	References
Chapter 10: Plants Response to Heavy Metal Stress
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Heavy Metal Toxicity
		10.2.1 Physiological and Biochemical Mechanisms of HM Toxicity in Plants
			10.2.1.1 Production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
 by Autoxidation and Fenton Reaction
			10.2.1.2 Blocking of Essential Functional Groups in Biomolecules
			10.2.1.3 Composite Mechanism Leading to Membrane Disruption
		10.2.2 Effect of an Individual HM on a Plant System
			10.2.2.1 Effects of Copper (Cu) on Plants
			10.2.2.2 Effects of Mercury (Hg) on Plants
			10.2.2.3 Effects of Cadmium (Cd) on Plants
			10.2.2.4 Effects of Manganese (Mn) on Plants
			10.2.2.5 Effect of Zinc (Zn) on Plants
			10.2.2.6 Effects of Cobalt (Co) on Plants
	10.3 Heavy Metal Effect on Plant Growth and Development
		10.3.1 Effect of HMs on Growth of Root
		10.3.2 Effect of HMs on Growth of the Shoot
		10.3.3 Effect of HMs on Leaves of Woody Plants
		10.3.4 Effect of HMs on Biomass Production
	10.4 Physiological Response to Heavy Metal Stress
		10.4.1 Effect of HMs on Transpiration
		10.4.2 Effect of HM on Imbibitions
		10.4.3 Effect of HMs on Seed Germination
		10.4.4 Effect of HMs on Mitochondrial Respiration
		10.4.5 Effect of HMs on Membrane Functionality
		10.4.6 Effect of HMs in Water Relation
		10.4.7 Effect of HMs on Photosynthesis
			10.4.7.1 Effect of HMs on Photosynthetic Pigments
			10.4.7.2 Effect of HMs on Photosynthetic Enzymes
			10.4.7.3 Effect of HMs on Photosystem
	10.5 Resistance and Tolerance to Heavy Metal Stress
		10.5.1 Restriction of Uptake and Transport of HMs
			10.5.1.1 Root Exudates
			10.5.1.2 Mycorrhizas
			10.5.1.3 The Cell Wall
			10.5.1.4 Plasma Membrane
		10.5.2 Complexation and Compartmentation of HMs within the Plant Cell
			10.5.2.1 Intracellular Sequestration
			10.5.2.2 Formation of Metal Complex with Phytochelatins
			10.5.2.3 Complexing by Metallothioneins
		10.5.3 Heat Shock Proteins
		10.5.4 Proline
		10.5.5 Plant Antioxidant System
	10.6 Molecular Response to Heavy Metal Stress
		10.6.1 Signal Transduction in Response to Heavy Metal Stress
			10.6.1.1 The Ca-Calmodulin System
			10.6.1.2 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Cascade
			10.6.1.3 Hormones in the Heavy Metal Response
			10.6.1.4 The Role of Reactive Oxygen Species
		10.6.2 Modulation of Transcription Factors
		10.6.3 Mobilization of Metal Ions to Extracellular Exudates and to the Cell Wall
		10.6.4 HM Ion Uptake from the Soil
			10.6.4.1 HM Ion Transport through the Plasma Membrane in Roots
			10.6.4.2 Reduced HM Uptake and Efflux Pumping at the Plasma
 Membrane
		10.6.5 Root-to-Shoot
			10.6.5.1 The HMA Family of Transporters
			10.6.5.2 The MATE Family of Efflux Proteins
			10.6.5.3 The Oligopeptide Transporters Family
		10.6.6 HM Chelation in the Cytosol
			10.6.6.1 Phytochelatins
			10.6.6.2 Metallothion (MTs)
			10.6.6.3 Ferritins
			10.6.6.4 Organic Acids, Amino Acids and Phosphate Derivatives
			10.6.6.5 Phytate (Myo-Inositol Hexakisphosphate)
		10.6.7 Metal Sequestration in the Vacuole by Tonoplast Transporters
			10.6.7.1 The ABC Transporters
			10.6.7.2 The CDF Transporters
			10.6.7.3 The HMA Transporters
			10.6.7.4 CaCA Transporters
			10.6.7.5 NRAMP Transporters
		10.6.8 Oxidative Stress Defense Mechanisms and the Repair of Stress-Damaged
 Proteins
	References
Chapter 11: Plant Response to Multiple Stresses
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Physiological Response to Multiple Stresses
		11.2.1 Stress Proteins
		11.2.2 Antioxidants
		11.2.3 Soluble Metabolites
			11.2.3.1 Soluble Sugars and Hormones
			11.2.3.2 Organic Acids
	11.3 Molecular Response to Multiple Stresses
		11.3.1 Salinity
		11.3.2 Drought
	11.4 Interactions between Biotic and Abiotic Stresses
		11.4.1 Transcription Factors (TFs)
		11.4.2 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Cascades
		11.4.3 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
	11.5 Perspectives: Consideration of Plant Stress Research in a New View
	References
Index