Special Educational Needs and Disability: The Basics

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Note
Preface
Acknowledgements
List of abbreviations
Chapter 1: Introduction to the field of special educational, or additional learning or support needs and disability
	Introduction
	Frames of reference, discourses, and labelling associated with special educational or additional learning or support needs and disability
		Frames of reference
		Discourses
		Labelling
		Stigma
		Information conveyed by ‘SEND’ or ‘additional learning’ or ‘support needs’ labels
			Connotations of the ‘need’ label
	Addressing identified needs through the principle of equity
		Differences in views about equitable provision
		Inclusive or special schools?
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 2: Special educational, or additional LEARNING OR support needs and disability: Evolution of the field
	Introduction
	Education provision from the mid-18th century
		Special education provision: the early years
			Schools for the blind
			Schools for the deaf
			Schools for the physically disabled
			Provision for so-called ‘mentally defective’ children
	Education for (almost) all
		Links between special provision and the social, political, and ideological context of society
	Developments in differentiated curricula for different learners
		Categorisation in mainstream secondary education
		Categorisation in special education
	Education for all
	Introduction of the concept of special educational needs
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 3: Learning and behaviour needs, disabilities, and the law across the UK
	Introduction
	Human Rights legislation
	Equality Act (2010)
		Implications of 2010 Equality Act in educational contexts
		Access arrangements and reasonable adjustments for external examinations
		Legal interpretations of the concept of ‘needs’
			‘Special educational needs’ in England and Northern Ireland
			‘Additional learning needs’ in Wales
			‘Additional support needs’ in Scotland
	The law relating to special educational, additional learning, or support needs across the UK
		‘Codes of Practice’ relating to needs in education in the UK
		Law in England
		Special Educational Needs and Disability Code of Practice: 0 to 25 Years (DfE/DoH, 2015) in England
			Guidance in the Code of Practice in England
		Criticisms of the system in England
			Special educational needs and disability review (OFSTED, 2010)
			House of Commons Select Committee report (Great Britain, Parliament, House of Commons, 2019)
			Issues related to academisation of schools
		Law in Wales
			Guidance in the Additional Learning Needs Code for Wales (2021)
		Criticisms of the system
		Law in Northern Ireland
			Guidance in the Code in Northern Ireland
		Law in Scotland
		Guidance in the Supporting Children’s Learning Code of Practice in Scotland
		Statutory assessment of special educational and additional support needs and disability
	Creating a positive learning environment for all
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 4: Models of human attachment, learning, and behaviour
	Introduction
	Attachment theory
	Learning and behaviour from a behaviourist view
		Understanding principles of behaviourism
			Applying behavioural principles to difficulties in behaviour and learning
			Individual student behaviour
			Group behaviour
		Applications of a behaviourist approach to new learning
			Task analysis and precision teaching
	Cognitive–behavioural approaches
	Constructivist approaches
		Constructing understanding
			Jean Piaget
			Lev Vygotsky
				Scaffolding learning
			Jerome Bruner
	Development of conceptual understandings and the role of language
	Understanding difficulties in learning
	An eco-systemic position
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 5: Understanding and addressing needs in communication and interaction
	Introduction
	Communication and language needs
	English as an additional language
	Students with language impairment
		Speech and language delay
		Receptive and expressive language impairments
			Addressing difficulties in receptive language
		Expressive language
			In-class activities to promote expressive language
			Storytelling to develop oral skills
			Strategies to support writing
		Pragmatic language impairment (formerly ‘semantic pragmatic disorder’)
	The example of ‘autism’
		Approaches to addressing difficulties associated with autism
		General approaches in the classroom and at home
		Specialist approaches
		The TEACCH programme
		The use of ICT to support communication
			Assistive devices
			Software to address communication and interaction needs
			Reading difficulties
			Writing difficulties
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 6: Understanding and addressing needs in cognition and learning
	Introduction
	Specific learning difficulties
		Effects of SpLD across ages and sectors
	The example of dyslexia
		Association between dyslexia and intelligence
		Effects on performance
		Theories explaining dyslexia
			Visual-based theories
				Deficit in the magnocellular sub-system
				Meares-Irlen syndrome: ‘visual stress’
			Cerebellar deficit hypothesis
			The ‘Balance Model’ of reading and dyslexia
			Phonological deficit hypothesis
		Addressing difficulties associated with dyslexia
			Focusing on the information-processing system
				Multi-sensory approaches to learning
				Phonological awareness training
				Acquiring reading and writing fluency
				‘Metacognitive’ strategies
			Coping strategies
				Visual discrimination/spatial analysis
		‘Reasonable adjustments’: examination concessions
	Marking students’ work
	Moderate learning difficulties
		Meeting students’ learning difficulties
			Applications of behaviourist learning theories
			Bloom’s taxonomy
			Use of Bloom’s hierarchy as a framework to differentiate teaching
	Haring’s learning hierarchy
	Constructivist approaches
		Piaget’s constructivist theory of learning
		Jerome Bruner’s ‘modes of representation’
	Lev Vygotsky and social constructivist approaches
		Addressing difficulties in comprehension
		Memory problems
		Addressing difficulties in the learning of mathematics
			Relational signs: ‘plus’, ‘minus’, ‘equal(s)’
			Common problems: the examples of place value and ‘zero’
		Understanding number-ness
			Time
	‘Conditions’ associated with moderate to severe learning difficulties: the example of Down’s syndrome
		Physical characteristics
		Cognitive development
	Children and young people with profound and multiple learning disabilities
		‘Intensive Interaction’
		‘Objects of reference’ and symbol systems
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 7: Understanding and addressing difficulties in social, emotional, and mental health
	Introduction
	Frames of reference related to social, emotional, and mental health
		Implications of attachment theory
			Nurture groups
			Links between emotional growth and learning
			Supporting bereaved children
		Support for bereaved children
			Whole-school/college responses based on attachment theory
	Approaches rooted in behaviourist psychology
	Therapeutic approaches to addressing issues of mental health
		Child and Mental Health Service (CAMHS)
		Therapies
			Play therapy
			Talking therapies
			‘Solution-focused brief therapy’
			Altering attributions of failure
	Addressing medical and biological explanations of behaviour
		Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
		Tourette syndrome
		Pathological demand avoidance
	Whole-school and classroom approaches to address social and emotional needs
		PSHE in the curriculum
		‘Circle Time’
		‘Circle of Friends’
		Transactional analysis
		Restorative practice
			Restorative practices in Scotland
		Addressing bullying behaviour
			Responses to bullying behaviour
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 8: Understanding and addressing sensory and/or physical needs
	Introduction
	Hearing impairments
		The ear: structure and function
			Hearing process
			Balance
		Degrees of deafness
		Types and causes of deafness
	Including learners with hearing impairments in mainstream
		Approaches to communication
		Auditory-oral approaches
		Sign bilingualism
		Total communication
		Assistive devices
		Improvements to acoustic conditions in learning environments
	Visual impairment
		Including learners with a visual impairment in the curriculum
			Safety issues
			Curriculum access
	Multi-sensory impairment
		Multi-sensory teaching
	Physical disabilities and needs
		Muscular dystrophy
		Cerebral palsy
		Enabling physical access around the school
		Encouraging physical access through the use of ICT
		Responding to the needs of learners with severe difficulties in motor movement
		Dyspraxia
		Liaising with support staff
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 9: Understanding and addressing a range of needs in literacy acquisition
	Introduction
	Attributes of supportive, responsive literacy teachers
		Effects of public visibility of learners\' literacy needs
		Cultural responsiveness
	Different conceptualisations of the technical process of literacy acquisition
		Bottom-up, phonics-based approaches
		Top-down, meaning-based approaches
		‘Interactive’ approach
	Addressing difficulties in reading
		Teaching from a bottom-up perspective
			Multi-sensory approaches
	Word recognition
	Vocabulary knowledge
	Development of reading fluency and comprehension
		Supported reading activities
			Reciprocal teaching
			Pause, prompt, praise
			Paired reading
			Use of audiobooks
	Addressing difficulties in writing
		Focusing on surface features and the mechanics of texts
			Multi-sensory approaches to spelling acquisition
				Reason and Boote\'s (1994) approach
				Highlight the tricky bits in colour (or by some other means)
				Bradley\'s (1981) approach
				Cued spelling
		Focusing on the process
			Support through planning and production of text
				Writing frames
				Mind maps
				Paired writing
				‘Scaffolded story writing’
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 10: Assessment and planning for learners with special educational, or additional learning or support needs
	Introduction
	The place of assessment in supporting learning and behaviour needs
	Assessment in the early years
		Eye tests
		Tests of hearing
		Assessment of physical impairments
		Use of Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage
			Identification through noticing
	Formal, norm-referenced (standardised) tests
		Standardisation process
			Standard deviation
		Validity and reliability
		Usefulness of standardised scores
		Percentile ranks
		Confidence bands
		Concept of ‘reading age’
		Issues associated with norm-referencing
		Formative assessment
	Criterion-referencing
	Assessment of particular areas of difficulty
		Assessment of communication difficulties
	Identifying dyslexic tendencies
		Formal diagnostic criteria
		Early years phonics screening check
		Access arrangements and ‘reasonable adjustments’
	Assessment of behaviour
		Recording the specifics of behaviour
			Time and interval sampling
			Using checklists
		Interpreting individual students’ behaviour
			Problem-solving interventions to address challenging behaviour
		Functional assessment of individual behaviour
		Biological and medical assessments
			Indicators of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
			Assessment of autism
	Assessment of social and emotional health and well-being
	Assessment of visual impairment
	Auditory impairment
		Assessment of hearing
	Assessment of physical impairments
	Eliciting learners’ views
	Engaging with parents’ or carers’ perspectives
	Planning to meet learners’ special or additional educational needs and disabilities
		Making effective use of individual plans
			‘Pupil passports’
		Target setting
	Statutory assessment of educational needs and disability across the UK
		Education, Health and Care Plans in England
		Individual development plans in Wales
		Statementing in Northern Ireland
		Coordinated support plans (Scotland)
	Summary
	Notes
Chapter 11: The wider workforce associated with special educational, or additional learning or support provision
	Introduction
	In-school staff
		Role of the coordinator
	In-class support arrangements
	Effective use of support staff in classrooms
	Collaboration between professionals
		Statutory requirements
		Range of services
		Inter-agency collaboration and statutory assessment of special educational, and additional LEARNING OR support, needs
	Challenges for multi-agency collaboration
		Issues around culture and values
			Professional boundaries
		Status and power
		Practical challenges
		Issues identified during the piloting of EHC plans
	Summary
	Notes
References
Index