Spatial Technology and Archaeology: The Archaeological Applications of GIS

Book Cover......Page 1
Half-Title......Page 2
Title......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Dedication......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
List of figures......Page 11
List of tables......Page 14
Preface......Page 15
Acknowledgements......Page 16
CHAPTER ONE Archaeology, space and GIS......Page 17
1.1 SPATIAL INFORMATION AND ARCHAEOLOGY......Page 18
1.2 THINKING ABOUT SPACE......Page 20
1.3 NEUTRAL SPACE AND QUANTIFICATION......Page 21
1.4 MEANINGFUL SPACES......Page 22
1.5 WHAT IS A GIS?......Page 23
1.6 AN ANATOMY LESSON......Page 24
Spatial database......Page 26
1.7 WHERE DID GIS COME FROM?......Page 27
1.8 WHAT DOES IT DO THAT MAKES IT SO ATTRACTIVE TO ARCHAEOLOGISTS?......Page 30
1.9 THE DEVELOPMENT OF GIS APPLICATIONS IN ARCHAEOLOGY......Page 31
1.10 CONCLUSION......Page 33
2.1 HOW DOES A SPATIAL DATABASE DIFFER FROM A TRADITIONAL DATABASE?......Page 35
2.2 THEMATIC MAPPING AND GEOREFERENCING......Page 37
2.3 PROJECTION SYSTEMS......Page 40
2.4 FURTHER COMPLICATIONS......Page 42
2.5 SPATIAL DATA MODELS AND DATA STRUCTURES......Page 44
Fundamental mappable objects......Page 45
Spatial dimension of primitives......Page 47
Data section for points......Page 48
Data section for lines......Page 49
Attribute values files......Page 50
Encoding topology......Page 51
Topology of line data......Page 52
Problems with simple data structures......Page 53
Area data: arc-node-area data structures......Page 55
Island and envelope polygons......Page 58
Summary......Page 59
2.8 RASTER DATA LAYERS......Page 60
Attributes and raster structures......Page 61
Sampling and resolution......Page 62
Compression......Page 64
Quadtrees......Page 65
2.9 WHICH IS BEST—VECTOR OR RASTER?......Page 66
2.11 CONCLUSION......Page 67
2.12 FURTHER INFORMATION......Page 68
3.1 SOURCES OF SPATIAL DATA......Page 69
3.3 CLARIFYING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPATIAL AND ATTRIBUTE......Page 70
3.4 INTEGRATING SPATIAL INFORMATION—MAP-BASED DATA......Page 72
Preparation......Page 74
Practicalities of digitising......Page 76
Scanning of maps and ‘heads-up’ digitising......Page 77
3.5 INTEGRATING SPATIAL INFORMATION—CO-ORDINATES......Page 78
Survey with total station......Page 80
Global Positioning Systems......Page 81
Conventional aerial photographs......Page 82
Correction and rectification......Page 83
Electronic scanners and remote sensing......Page 84
Remote sensing from space......Page 85
Landsat......Page 86
Russian systems......Page 87
Geophysical survey data......Page 88
3.9 INTEGRATING ATTRIBUTE DATA......Page 89
Accuracy and precision......Page 90
Factors effecting data quality......Page 91
Transcription errors......Page 92
3.11 METADATA AND INTEROPERABILITY......Page 93
3.12 CONCLUSION......Page 94
4.1 THIS IS WHERE THE FUN STARTS......Page 95
4.2 SEARCHING THE SPATIAL DATABASE......Page 96
Region searches for points......Page 97
Region searches for lines and areas......Page 98
4.3 SUMMARIES......Page 99
Area......Page 100
Perimeter......Page 101
Histograms and other graphical summaries......Page 102
Reclassification and generalisation......Page 103
Mathematical transformations......Page 105
Other examples of neighbourhood operators......Page 106
Examples of transformations......Page 107
Arithmetic between layers......Page 108
Mask and cover overlay operations......Page 109
5.1 USES OF ELEVATION MODELS......Page 111
5.2 ELEVATION DATA IN MAPS......Page 112
Data structures for elevation models......Page 114
Interpolation......Page 117
The effect of different algorithms......Page 118
Photogrammetry......Page 120
Slope and aspect......Page 122
Hydrological and flood modelling......Page 124
5.7 SUMMARY......Page 127
CHAPTER SIX Beginning to quantify spatial patterns......Page 129
6.2 IDENTIFYING STRUCTURE WHEN WE ONLY HAVE POINTS......Page 130
Quadrat methods......Page 132
Dispersion of clusters around the mean centre......Page 133
6.3 SPATIAL STRUCTURE AMONG POINTS THAT HAVE VALUES......Page 134
6.4 SPATIAL STRUCTURE IN AREA AND CONTINUOUS DATA......Page 136
6.5 STRUCTURE IN LINES AND NETWORKS......Page 137
6.6 COMPARING POINTS WITH SPATIAL VARIABLES: ONE- AND TWO-SAMPLE TESTS......Page 139
6.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DIFFERENT KINDS OF SPATIAL OBSERVATIONS......Page 142
6.8 EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS......Page 144
6.9 AND THERE IS MORE…......Page 146
6.10 SPATIAL ANALYSIS?......Page 147
CHAPTER SEVEN Sites, territories and distance......Page 149
7.1 BUFFERS, CORRIDORS AND PROXIMITY SURFACES......Page 150
7.2 VORONOI TESSELLATION AND DELAUNAY TRIANGULATION......Page 151
Isotropic cost surface analysis......Page 153
Anisotropic cost surface analysis......Page 154
The friction surface......Page 156
Least-cost pathways......Page 158
More methodological considerations......Page 159
7.4 SITE CATCHMENT ANALYSIS AND GIS......Page 160
7.5 CONCLUSION......Page 163
CHAPTER EIGHT Location models and prediction......Page 164
Unit of analysis......Page 165
Cultural features......Page 166
Deductive rule approaches using map algebra......Page 167
Inductive methods of obtaining simple rules......Page 168
8.4 REGRESSION-BASED APPROACHES......Page 169
Problems with linear multiple regression......Page 170
Logistic multiple regression......Page 171
Bias towards successful prediction of nonsites......Page 172
8.5 AN EXAMPLE: PREDICTIVE MODELLING IN ACTION......Page 173
8.6 METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN PREDICTIVE MODELLING......Page 175
8.7 THE PREDICTION PREDICAMENT: THEORETICAL DIFFERENCES OF OPINION......Page 177
8.8 CONCLUSIONS......Page 178
CHAPTER NINE Trend surface and interpolation......Page 179
9.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERPOLATORS......Page 180
9.2 POINT DATA......Page 181
9.3 TREND SURFACE ANALYSIS......Page 182
9.4 APPROACHES THAT USE TRIANGULATION......Page 185
9.5 APPROACHES THAT USE SPLINES......Page 186
9.6 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION......Page 188
9.7 GEOSTATISTICS AND KRIGING......Page 190
9.8 SUMMARY......Page 193
10.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF VISIBILITY IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS......Page 195
10.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO VISIBILITY......Page 196
10.3 HOW DOES THE GIS CALCULATE VISIBILITY?......Page 198
10.4 VISIBILITY WITHIN SAMPLES OF SITES—THE CUMULATIVE VIEWSHED......Page 200
10.5 VISIBILITY OF GROUPS OF SITES—MULTIPLE AND CUMULATIVE VIEWSHEDS......Page 201
10.6 PROBLEMS WITH VIEWSHED ANALYSIS......Page 202
10.7 INTERVISIBILITY AND RECIPROCITY......Page 203
10.8 HOW ARCHAEOLOGISTS HAVE APPLIED VISIBILITY ANALYSES......Page 205
10.9 CRITIQUES AND DEVELOPMENTS......Page 207
11.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF SPATIAL TECHNOLOGY FOR HERITAGE MANAGEMENT......Page 209
Integration......Page 210
11.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCE AS CONTINUOUS VARIATION......Page 211
Data and data quality......Page 213
People, time and training......Page 214
The context of the application......Page 215
Design of the system......Page 216
Discussion......Page 217
Description of current systems......Page 218
11.6 NATIONAL AND SUPRA-NATIONAL CONTEXTS......Page 220
11.7 CONCLUSIONS: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ADOPTION OF GIS......Page 221
12.1 THE CURRENT STATE OF GIS APPLICATIONS WITHIN ARCHAEOLOGY......Page 223
12.2 THE DEVELOPING SHAPE OF GIS APPLICATIONS WITHIN ARCHAEOLOGY......Page 226
12.3 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GIS......Page 227
12.4 OBJECT-ORIENTED GIS (OO-GIS)......Page 228
12.5 MULTI-DIMENSIONAL GIS (3D-GIS)......Page 230
12.6 TEMPORAL GIS (TGIS)......Page 231
12.7 TECHNOLOGICAL CONVERGENCE AND FIELD ARCHAEOLOGY......Page 232
12.8 BUILDING A RESEARCH COMMUNITY......Page 234
References......Page 235
Index......Page 247