Solid Waste Engineering and Management: Volume 3

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1: Solid Waste Management in the Tourism Industry
	1.1 Introduction
		1.1.1 Definition of Tourism
		1.1.2 Tourism Waste
		1.1.3 Waste Management
	1.2 Tourism Waste Source
		1.2.1 Resort
		1.2.2 Hotel/Hospitality
		1.2.3 Island
		1.2.4 Cruise, Ship, and Yacht
		1.2.5 Historical City
		1.2.6 Heritage Tourism
		1.2.7 Highland Tourism
		1.2.8 Entertainment Park/City
		1.2.9 Shopping Tourism
	1.3 Type of Tourism Waste
		1.3.1 Food
		1.3.2 Plastic/Packaging
		1.3.3 Biodegradable
		1.3.4 Inorganic Waste
	1.4 Management of Waste
		1.4.1 Generation
		1.4.2 Collection
		1.4.3 Disposal
		1.4.4 Recycling
		1.4.5 Minimization
	1.5 Impact of Tourism Waste
		1.5.1 Environment
		1.5.2 Financial
		1.5.3 Economy
	1.6 Sustainable Green Tourism Industry
		1.6.1 Zero-Waste Concept
		1.6.2 Awareness
		1.6.3 Strategic Planning
		1.6.4 Technology and Tools
		1.6.5 Regulations
	1.7 Conclusion
	References
Glossary
Chapter 2: Rubber Tire Recycling and Disposal
	2.1 At a Glance: A General Picture of Solid Waste Generation and Management
	2.2 Brief History of Natural and Synthetic Rubber
	2.3 Global Rubber Production and Consumption
	2.4 Background of Rubber Tire Recycling and Disposal
	2.5 Technology of Rubber Tire Recycling and Disposal
	2.6 Issues in Rubber Tire Recycling and Disposal
	2.7 Conclusion
	2.8 Recommendation
	References
Glossary
Chapter 3: Electronic and Electrical Equipment Waste Disposal
	3.1 Introduction
		3.1.1 Introduction
		3.1.2 Current Situation
			3.1.2.1 Contributing Factors/Issues in WEEE Management
		3.1.3 Classifications on WEEE
		3.1.4 Waste Characteristic
			3.1.4.1 Plastic
			3.1.4.2 Metals
	3.2 Effect to Environment
		3.2.1 General
		3.2.2 Effect to Soil
		3.2.3 Effect to Water
			3.2.3.1 Groundwater
			3.2.3.2 Surface Water
		3.2.4 Effect to Air
		3.2.5 Effect to Human
		3.2.6 Climate Change
		3.2.7 Treatment Plan
	3.3 Waste Management
		3.3.1 Policy and Initiatives
		3.3.2 Collection
		3.3.3 Recycling and Recovering Technology
			3.3.3.1 Technology Feasibility and Organizational Requirements
				3.3.3.1.1 Facilities for Collection
				3.3.3.1.2 Dismantling and Separation
				3.3.3.1.3 Improving Disposal Methods
			3.3.3.2 Recycling and Recovering of Metal
				3.3.3.2.1 Conventional Approaches for Recycling of Metals from E-waste
					Incineration Process
					Hydraulic Shaking Bed Separation
					Acid Leaching Process
				3.3.3.2.2 Unconventional Approaches for Recycling of Metals from E-waste
					Pyrometallurgical Technology
					Mild Extracting Technology
					Biometallurgical Technology
					Biosorption
					Electrochemical Technology
					Supercritical Technology
					Vacuum Metallurgical Technology
					Ultrasound Technology
					Mechanochemical Technology
			3.3.3.3 Recycling and Recovering of Plastic
				3.3.3.3.1 Mechanical Recycling: Plastic Sorting And Re-manufacturing
					Thermal Treatment
					Loading System
					Rotary Kiln
					Secondary Combustion (Afterburner) Chamber
					Recovery Boiler
					Flue Gas Cleaning System
				3.3.3.3.2 Landfill
	3.4 Conclusion
	References
Glossary
Chapter 4: Health-Care Waste Management
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Definition and Classification of Health-Care Waste (HCW)
		4.2.1 Terminology
	4.3 Sources and Generation of HCW
		4.3.1 Sources
		4.3.2 Generation of HCW
		4.3.3 Compositions of HCW
		4.3.4 Dangers and Risks of HCW
			4.3.4.1 Types of Hazards
			4.3.4.2 Affected Individuals
			4.3.4.3 Hazards by Infectious Waste and Sharps
			4.3.4.4 Pharmaceutical and Chemical Waste Hazards
			4.3.4.5 Genotoxic Waste Hazards
			4.3.4.6 Radioactive Waste Hazards
	4.4 Reduce, Reuse, and Recycling (3R’s) of HCW
		4.4.1 The Waste-Management Hierarchy
		4.4.2 Waste Reduction
		4.4.3 Green Procurement
		4.4.4 Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse
			4.4.4.1 Recycling Symbols for Plastics
			4.4.4.2 Safe Reuse
			4.4.4.3 Reuse and Recycling
		4.4.5 Segregation, Storage, and Transport of HCW
		4.4.6 Collection Within the Health-Care Facility
		4.4.7 On-Site Transport of Waste
		4.4.8 Off-Site Transport of Waste
	4.5 Treatment and Disposal Methods of HCW
		4.5.1 Incineration
			4.5.1.1 Category
			4.5.1.2 Required Waste Characteristics
			4.5.1.3 Types of Incinerators for HCW
				4.5.1.3.1 Incinerators with a Lack of Oxygen
				4.5.1.3.2 Multiple Chamber/Hearth Incinerators
				4.5.1.3.3 Energy-Recovering Rotary Kilns
			4.5.1.4 Environmental Control of Incinerators
		4.5.2 Low Heat Treatment Systems
			4.5.2.1 Heat Processes
			4.5.2.2 Chemical Processes
			4.5.2.3 Irradiation Technologies
			4.5.2.4 Biological Processes
			4.5.2.5 Mechanical Processes
			4.5.2.6 Steam Treatment Technologies
				4.5.2.6.1 Autoclaves
				4.5.2.6.2 Microwave Treatment Technologies
		4.5.3 Encapsulation and Solidification
		4.5.4 Emerging Technologies
		4.5.5 Gas Sterilisation
		4.5.6 Land Disposal
	4.6 HCW Management in Selected Countries
	4.7 Legal Framework, Regulations, and Code of Practices of HCW Management
		4.7.1 United Kingdom
			4.7.1.1 The 1990 Environmental Protection Act Was Enacted to Protect the Environment (Including Duty of Care Regulations)
			4.7.1.2 The Hazardous Waste Directive (HazWaste Directive) of 2011
			4.7.1.3 The Controlled Waste Regulations (England and Wales) 2012
			4.7.1.4 Regulations for the Transportation of Dangerous Goods
			4.7.1.5 The Regulations on Statutory Duty of Care
			4.7.1.6 The Hazardous Waste Regulations of 2005 (Hazardous Waste Regulations)
		4.7.2 Malaysia
			4.7.2.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974
				4.7.2.1.1 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulations 2005
				4.7.2.1.2 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities) Order 1989
				4.7.2.1.3 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities) Regulations 1989
	4.8 Covid-19 Situation and Its Impact on HCW Management
	4.9 Conclusion
	References
Glossary
Chapter 5: Energy Recovery from Solid Waste
	5.1 Energy Recovery: Introduction
	5.2 Energy Recovery Context
		5.2.1 Recycling and Energy from Waste
		5.2.2 Waste-to-Energy Classification
		5.2.3 Waste-to-Energy Is a Sustainable Waste Management Option
		5.2.4 International Characterization Process of Energy-to-Waste Technologies
		5.2.5 Waste-to-Energy Projects
		5.2.6 Waste-to-Energy Scenario
		5.2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Energy
		5.2.8 The Nature of the Waste Considered for Renewable Energy
			5.2.8.1 Biomass Energy
			5.2.8.2 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
	5.3 Energy from Waste Infrastructure
		5.3.1 Energy Recovery Concepts
		5.3.2 Waste-to-Bioproducts (WtB) and Waste-to-Energy (WtE)
		5.3.3 Pretreatment for MSW
			5.3.3.1 Mechanical Comminution
			5.3.3.2 Steam Explosion
			5.3.3.3 Liquid Hot Water
		5.3.4 Chemical Pretreatment
			5.3.4.1 Dilute Acid Hydrolysis
			5.3.4.2 Alkaline Pretreatment
		5.3.5 Wet Oxidation
			5.3.5.1 Acid
			5.3.5.2 Green Solvent
	5.4 Developing an Energy from Waste Facility
		5.4.1 Thermochemical
		5.4.2 Incineration
		5.4.3 Gasification
		5.4.4 Pyrolysis
		5.4.5 Combination Processes
			5.4.5.1 Combination Pyrolisis-Gasification
			5.4.5.2 Combination Gasification-Combustion
		5.4.6 Plasma-Based Technologies
		5.4.7 Biochemical
			5.4.7.1 Introduction
			5.4.7.2 Fermentation: Ethanol Production
	5.5 Reducing the Environmental Impacts and Maximizing the Energy
	5.6 Recovery Energy from Waste: Global Development
	5.7 Summary
	References
Glossary
Chapter 6: Composting by Black Soldier Fly
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Current Management on the Organic Wastes
		6.2.1 Sources of Organic Waste
			6.2.1.1 Food Waste
			6.2.1.2 Animal Manure
		6.2.2 Organic Waste Management
			6.2.2.1 Waste Management in China
			6.2.2.2 Waste Management in India
	6.3 Current Practices Adopted for Composting of Organic Waste
		6.3.1 Type of Composting
			6.3.1.1 Aerobic Composting
			6.3.1.2 Windrow System
			6.3.1.3 Aerated Static Pile Composting
			6.3.1.4 In-Vessel Composting
			6.3.1.5 Vermicomposting
		6.3.2 Co-composting as an Approach for Effective Biodegradation of Organic Waste
			6.3.2.1 Co-composting of Food Waste with Other Substrates
			6.3.2.2 Co-composting of Manure with Different Substrates
			6.3.2.3 Co-composting of Rice Straw with Different Substrates
			6.3.2.4 Co-composting of Olive Waste with Various Substrates
	6.4 Black Soldier Fly Design and Control
		6.4.1 Black Soldier Fly Species (Hermetia illucens)
			6.4.1.1 Geographical Distribution of Species
			6.4.1.2 Anatomy and Life Cycle
			6.4.1.3 Feed Characteristics
		6.4.2 Factors That Affect the Growth of Hermtia illucens
			6.4.2.1 Humidity
			6.4.2.2 Temperature
			6.4.2.3 Light Intensity
			6.4.2.4 pH
			6.4.2.5 Moisture Content
		6.4.3 Feeding Substrates on Black Soldier Fly
			6.4.3.1 Single Substrates
			6.4.3.2 Mixed Substrates
			6.4.3.3 Microbial Fermented Substrates
				6.4.3.3.1 In Situ Fermentation
				6.4.3.3.2 Ex Situ Fermentation
		6.4.4 Black Soldier Fly System Design
		6.4.5 Biomolecules from Black Soldier Fly
	6.5 Waste to Valuable Biomass
		6.5.1 Black Soldier Fly Frass as Biofertilizer
		6.5.2 Black Soldier Fly Larvae as Animal Feed
		6.5.3 Biomass to Energy Production
	6.6 Case Study of Black Soldier Fly Technology Application
		6.6.1 China
		6.6.2 The United States
		6.6.3 Malaysia
		6.6.4 South Korea
		6.6.5 Italy
	6.7 Global Warming Potential
	6.8 Challenge and Future Development
	6.9 Conclusion
	Glossary
	References
Chapter 7: Biodrying of Municipal Solid Waste: A Case Study in Malaysia
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 Overview Global Solid Waste Management
		7.1.2 Solid Waste Management in Malaysia
			7.1.2.1 Solid Waste Generation and Characteristic
			7.1.2.2 Recycling Rate
			7.1.2.3 Composting
			7.1.2.4 Incinerator
			7.1.2.5 Landfill
	7.2 Drying Technologies
		7.2.1 Solar Drying
		7.2.2 Rotary Dryer
		7.2.3 Spray Drying
		7.2.4 Freeze Drying
	7.3 Solid Waste Biodrying
		7.3.1 Biodrying Definition
		7.3.2 Advantages of Biodrying
		7.3.3 Principles of Biodrying Operation
		7.3.4 Biodrying Method Design
	7.4 Biodrying Design
		7.4.1 Reactor Design of Biodrying Study in Italy
		7.4.2 Reactor Design of Biodrying Study in China
		7.4.3 Case Study: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
			7.4.3.1 Lab-Scale Reactor Design
			7.4.3.2 Waste Sample Preparation
			7.4.3.3 Experimental Set-Up
			7.4.3.4 Results and Discussion
				7.4.3.4.1 Moisture Content and Mass Loss
				7.4.3.4.2 Influence of Temperature
			7.4.3.5 Electricity Consumption
			7.4.3.6 Conclusion
	7.5 Factors Influencing Biodrying Method
		7.5.1 Moisture Content
		7.5.2 Aeration
		7.5.3 Temperature
		7.5.4 Calorific Value
		7.5.5 Microorganisms Activity
	7.6 Biodrying Facilities in Malaysia and Abroad
		7.6.1 Biodrying Plant at RDF Plant, Semenyih, Selangor
		7.6.2 Biodrying Plant at Jalan Klang Lama, Petaling Jaya, Kuala Lumpur
		7.6.3 Biodrying Plant at Kömürcüoda, Turkey
	7.7 The Importance of Solid Waste Biodrying
		7.7.1 Alternative Source of Energy
		7.7.2 The Environment
		7.7.3 Cost Saving
	7.8 Potential Application of Biodrying
		7.8.1 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) Plant
			7.8.1.1 Limitations of the RDF Technology
			7.8.1.2 Application of Biodrying in the RDF Technology
		7.8.2 Heat Treatment Plant (Incinerator)
			7.8.2.1 Limitations of the Incinerator Technology
			7.8.2.2 Application of Biodrying in the Incinerator Technology
		7.8.3 Solid Waste Landfill
			7.8.3.1 Limitations of Solid Waste Landfills
			7.8.3.2 Application of Biodrying at Solid Waste Landfills
		7.8.4 Solid Waste Transfer Station
			7.8.4.1 Limitations at Solid Waste Transfer Station
			7.8.4.2 Application of Biodrying at Solid Waste Transfer Station
	7.9 Conclusion
	Glossary
	References
Chapter 8: Landfill Leachate Treatment
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Types of Landfill
	8.3 Formation of Landfill Leachate and Its Composition
		8.3.1 Leachate Formation
	8.4 Leachate Quantity
		8.4.1 Introduction
			8.4.1.1 Composition of Wastes
			8.4.1.2 Maturity of Landfill
			8.4.1.3 Climatic Impact on Landfill
			8.4.1.4 Waste Degradation Mechanism Inside the Landfill
			8.4.1.5 Quantification of Leachate Quantity
	8.5 Classifications of Landfill Leachate Treatment
		8.5.1 Leachate Channelling
		8.5.2 Recirculation
		8.5.3 Combined Treatment with Domestic Sewage
		8.5.4 Treatment
	8.6 Landfill Leachate Treatment Methods
		8.6.1 Biological Treatment Methods
			8.6.1.1 Introduction
			8.6.1.2 Factors Influencing Biological Treatment
				8.6.1.2.1 Microbiological Components
				8.6.1.2.2 Nutrients
				8.6.1.2.3 Pretreatment Processes
				8.6.1.2.4 Environmental Conditions
				8.6.1.2.5 Inhibition
			8.6.1.3 Some of the Aerobic Biological Treatment
				8.6.1.3.1 Activated Sludge Method
				8.6.1.3.2 Membrane Bioreactor
				8.6.1.3.3 Aerated Lagoon
				8.6.1.3.4 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
				8.6.1.3.5 Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)
				8.6.1.3.6 Trickling Filter
				8.6.1.3.7 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor
			8.6.1.4 Anaerobic Biological Treatment Methods
				8.6.1.4.1 Anaerobic Sequencing Batch Reactor (ASBR)
				8.6.1.4.2 Up-Flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
				8.6.1.4.3 Anaerobic Filter
		8.6.2 Future Prospects of Biological Methods with Major Challenges
	8.7 Physical Treatment Methods
		8.7.1 Air Stripping
		8.7.2 Flotation
			8.7.2.1 Working Principles of Flotation
			8.7.2.2 Bubbles Size, Shape, and Concentration
		8.7.3 Sedimentation
		8.7.4 Adsorption
			8.7.4.1 Mechanism of Adsorption
				8.7.4.1.1 Physical Adsorption
				8.7.4.1.2 Chemical Adsorption
			8.7.4.2 Adsorption Isotherms and Kinetics
				8.7.4.2.1 Langmuir Isotherm
				8.7.4.2.2 Freundlich Isotherm
			8.7.4.3 Adsorbents
				8.7.4.3.1 Activated Carbon
				8.7.4.3.2 Low-Cost Adsorbent
		8.7.5 Evaporation
			8.7.5.1 Solar/Natural Evaporator
			8.7.5.2 Mechanical Evaporator
		8.7.6 Ultrasound
		8.7.7 Irradiation
		8.7.8 Membrane Filtration
			8.7.8.1 Microfiltration (MF)
			8.7.8.2 Ultrafiltration (UF)
			8.7.8.3 Nanofiltration (NF)
			8.7.8.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO)
	8.8 Chemical Treatment Technologies
		8.8.1 Chemical Precipitation
			8.8.1.1 Introduction
			8.8.1.2 MAP Precipitation
		8.8.2 Chemical Oxidation
		8.8.3 Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP)
			8.8.3.1 Ozonation
			8.8.3.2 Photocatalytic Oxidation
			8.8.3.3 Photochemical Oxidation
			8.8.3.4 Electrochemical Oxidation
			8.8.3.5 Fenton Oxidation
			8.8.3.6 Performances of Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) and Oxidants in Leachate Treatment
		8.8.4 Coagulation-Flocculation
			8.8.4.1 Introduction and Mechanism
			8.8.4.2 Type of Coagulants
			8.8.4.3 Factor Influencing Coagulation-Flocculation (C-F)
				8.8.4.3.1 Effect of pH
				8.8.4.3.2 Effect of Dosage
				8.8.4.3.3 Effect of Contact Time
				8.8.4.3.4 Effect of Temperature
			8.8.4.4 Residual Metal and Sludge
			8.8.4.5 Adverse Consequences of Chemical Coagulants on Human Health and Environment
			8.8.4.6 Advantageous Concerns of Natural Coagulants for Leachate Treatment
		8.8.5 Electrochemical Process
		8.8.6 Ion Exchange
	8.9 Integrated Technology for Landfill Leachate Treatment
		8.9.1 Integrated Coagulation Process
		8.9.2 Integrated Oxidation Process
		8.9.3 Combined Adsorption Process
		8.9.4 Combined Membrane Processes
	8.10 Conclusion
	References
Glossary
Chapter 9: Health and Safety Considerations in Waste Management
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Health and Safety Issues in Waste Management
	9.3 An Epidemiological Study in Waste Management
		9.3.1 Designing an Epidemiological Study
		9.3.2 Sample Size and Statistical Evaluation
		9.3.3 Exposure Data
		9.3.4 Biomarkers
	9.4 Health Effects of Waste Management Activities
		9.4.1 Waste Collections and Recycling
		9.4.2 Landfilling and Land Spreading
		9.4.3 Incineration
		9.4.4 Composting
		9.4.5 Clinical/Radioactive Waste
		9.4.6 Overall Stages of Waste Management Processes
	9.5 Practical Examples
		9.5.1 Case Study: The Health and Safety of Waste Collection in Developing Countries and Developed Country
		9.5.2 Case Study: The Occupational Health and Safety Practices in a Micro and Small-Sized Enterprise of Portuguese Waste Management Sector
	9.6 Conclusion and Summary
	References
Glossary
Chapter 10: Innovative Bioreactor Landfill and Its Leachate and Landfill Gas Management
	10.1 Introduction and Summary
		10.1.1 Summary
		10.1.2 Excellent Leadership of the US Environmental Protection Agency
		10.1.3 Partnership of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization
	10.2 Problems of Traditional Dry Tomb Landfill
	10.3 Historical Development of Bioreactor Landfills Within the US Environmental Protection Agency
		10.3.1 Joint Efforts of the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
		10.3.2 Continuous Efforts of the US Environmental Protection Agency in Research, Development, and Demonstrations
	10.4 Types of Bioreactor Landfills
		10.4.1 Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill
		10.4.2 Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill
		10.4.3 Hybrid (Aerobic–Anaerobic) Bioreactor Landfill
	10.5 Biochemical Theory of Bioreactor Landfill
		10.5.1 Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill
		10.5.2 Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill
		10.5.3 Hybrid (Aerobic–Anaerobic) Bioreactor Landfill
	10.6 Design and Operation Considerations of Bioreactor Landfills
		10.6.1 Leachate and Liquid Management
		10.6.2 Landfill Gas Management
		10.6.3 Special Considerations for Bioreactor Landfills
		10.6.4 Specific Design Criteria and Monitoring Specifications of Project XL Bioreactor Landfill Projects
	10.7 Potential Advantages of Bioreactor Landfills
	10.8 Bioreactor Landfill Performance Reports
		10.8.1 Liner Head Maintenance
		10.8.2 Settlement
		10.8.3 Sideslope Stability
		10.8.4 Fire Prevention
		10.8.5 Gas Collection
		10.8.6 Brief Summary of the Bioreactor Landfill Performance Study
	10.9 Revision of the United States Current Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Rules and Regulations
		10.9.1 Revision to the Research, Development, and Demonstration (RD & D) Permits Rule for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills
		10.9.2 Revisions to Address Liquids Management in Landfills
		10.9.3 Regulatory Overview on Project XL Concerning Bioreactor Landfills
	Appendix 1: § 258.41 Project XL Bioreactor Landfill Projects: Buncombe County, North Carolina Project XL Bioreactor Landfill Requirements
	Appendix 2: § 258.41 Project XL Bioreactor Landfill Projects: Module D of the Yolo County Central Landfill Requirements
	Appendix 3: § 258.41 Project XL Bioreactor Landfill Projects: Virginia Landfills XL Project Requirements
	Appendix 4: United States Regulatory Overview on Project XL Concerning the Newly Developed Bioreactor Landfills
	References
Glossary
Index