Solar Receivers For Thermal Power Generation. Fundamentals and Advanced Concepts

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Solar Receivers for Thermal Power Generation
Solar Receivers for Thermal Power Generation: Fundamentals and Advanced Concepts
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 - Introduction to concentrating solar power
	1.1 Introduction
		1.1.1 Sustainable production of electricity
		1.1.2 Photovoltaic technology
		1.1.3 Concentrating solar power
	1.2 Concentrator
		1.2.1 Classification of concentrators
		1.2.2 Concentration ratio
			Example 1.1
				Solution
	1.3 Solar receiver
		1.3.1 Energy balance of solar receiver
		1.3.2 Heat classification and operation of solar receivers
	1.4 Enhancement of capacity factor
		1.4.1 Thermal storage
		1.4.2 Backup heating
	1.5 Power block
		1.5.1 Carnot cycle
			Example 1.2
				Solution
		1.5.2 Rankine cycle
		1.5.3 Gas turbine
		1.5.4 Stirling cycle
		1.5.5 Kalina cycle
	1.6 Overall system efficiency
		1.6.1 Optical efficiency
		1.6.2 Efficiency of solar receivers
			Example 1.3
				Solution
		1.6.4 Efficiency of electric generators
		1.6.5 System efficiency
			Example 1.4
				Solution
	1.7 Common types of concentrating solar power technology
		1.7.1 Parabolic trough concentrator
		1.7.2 Linear Fresnel reflector
		1.7.3 Solar tower
		1.7.4 Parabolic dish concentrator
	Nomenclature
	References
2 - Solar radiation resource
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Source of solar radiation
		2.2.1 The sun
		2.2.2 Solar constant
	2.3 Components of solar radiation
		2.3.1 Beam and diffuse radiation
		2.3.2 Direct normal irradiance
	2.4 Position of the sun and direction of beam radiation
		Example 2.1
			Solution
	2.5 Extraterrestrial radiation and solar radiation on inclined surfaces
	2.6 Available solar radiation on the earth\'s surface
	2.7 Attenuation of solar radiation when incident on opaque and transparent surfaces
		Example 2.2
			Solution
		Nomenclature
	References
3 - Classification of solar receivers
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Geometric design
		3.2.1 Tubular receivers
		3.2.2 Volumetric receivers
		3.2.3 Microchannels
		3.2.4 Linear and point focus receivers
		3.2.5 External and cavity solar receivers
	3.3 Adaptable heat transfer media
		3.3.1 Gas solar receivers
		3.3.2 Liquid solar receivers
		3.3.3 Particle solar receivers
			3.3.3.1 Free-falling particle receivers
			3.3.3.2 Obstructed particle receivers
			3.3.3.3 Rotary/centrifugal receivers
			3.3.3.4 Confined fluidized bed receivers
			3.3.3.5 Gravity-driven particle flow through enclosures
	References
4 - Optical properties of materials for solar receivers
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Transmission of radiation through transparent materials
		4.2.1 Reflection and absorption of beam radiation
			Example 4.1
				Solution
			Example 4.2
				Solution
		4.2.2 Optical properties of transparent covers
			Example 4.3
				Solution
		4.2.3 Transmission of diffuse radiation
		4.2.4 Transmittance–absorptance product
		4.2.5 Spectral dependence of transmittance
		4.2.6 Transparent selective surface
	4.3 Opaque materials
		4.3.1 Absorptance and emittance
		4.3.2 Reflectance
		4.3.3 Functional relationships among absorptance, emittance, and reflectance
		4.3.4 Selective absorber surfaces
		4.3.5 Computation of absorptance and emittance
			Example 4.4
				Solution
		4.3.6 Measurement of surface radiation
		4.3.7 Angular dependence of absorptance of solar radiation
		4.3.8 Absorptance of external and cavity solar receivers
	Nomenclature
	References
5 - Characteristics of heat transfer media
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Required characteristics of heat transfer fluids
			5.1.1.1 Working temperature range and thermal stability
			5.1.1.2 Heat transfer properties
			5.1.1.3 Working pressure
			5.1.1.4 Operational aspects
			5.1.1.5 Affordability of materials
		5.1.2 Wall-to-fluid coefficient of convective heat transfer
			Example 5.1
				Solution
	5.2 Conventional heat transfer media
		5.2.1 Water/steam
		5.2.2 Gases
			5.2.2.1 Air
			5.2.2.2 Carbon dioxide
			5.2.2.3 Helium
			5.2.2.4 Hydrogen
		5.2.3 Molten salts
		5.2.4 Thermal oil
	5.3 Advanced heat transfer media
		5.3.1 Supercritical cycles
			5.3.1.1 Supercritical steam
			5.3.1.2 Supercritical carbon dioxide
		5.3.2 Liquid metals
			5.3.2.1 Liquid sodium
			5.3.2.2 Lead-bismuth eutectic
			5.3.2.3 Gallium
		5.3.3 Nanofluids
			5.3.3.1 Preparation of nanofluids
			5.3.3.2 Application of nanofluids in solar receivers
		5.3.4 Suspended solid particles
			Example 5.2
				Solution
	Nomenclature
	References
6 - Concepts of thermal energy storage and solar receivers
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Classification of thermal energy storage concepts
		6.1.2 Characteristics of thermal energy storage media and systems
			6.1.2.1 Thermophysical properties
			6.1.2.2 Economic and environmental characteristics
			6.1.2.3 Safety and health hazard
			6.1.2.4 Summary of required characteristics of thermal energy storage materials
		6.1.3 Benefits of integrating concentrating solar power with thermal energy storage
	6.2 Sensible thermal energy storage concepts
		6.2.1 Liquid thermal energy storage
			Example 6.1
			Solution
			6.2.1.1 Low-temperature water systems
			6.2.1.2 High-temperature water systems
				Example 6.2
					Solution
			6.2.1.3 Thermal oil systems
			6.2.1.4 Molten salt systems
			6.2.1.5 Liquid sodium
		6.2.2 Sensible heat storage in solids
			6.2.2.1 Materials
			6.2.2.2 Heat transfer concepts
			6.2.2.3 Packed bed storage system
			6.2.2.4 High temperature indirect contact concrete storage systems
	6.3 Latent thermal energy storage
		6.3.1 Materials
			6.3.1.1 Paraffins
			6.3.1.2 Salt hydrates
			6.3.1.3 Anhydrous salts
		6.3.2 Heat transfer concepts
	6.4 High-temperature latent heat storage applications
	6.5 Thermochemical energy storage
		6.5.1 Heat of chemical reactions
		6.5.2 Heat of sorption
	6.6 Configurations of concentrating solar power plants with thermal storage
	Nomenclature
	References
7 - Thermodynamics of solar receivers
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Laws of thermodynamics
		7.2.1 Zeroth law
		7.2.2 First law of thermodynamics
		7.2.3 Second law of thermodynamics
		7.2.4 Third law of thermodynamics
	7.3 Energy analysis
		7.3.1 Steady flow systems
			7.3.1.1 Mass conservation
				Example 7.1
					Solution
			7.3.1.2 Flow work and energy of a moving fluid
		7.3.2 Transient flow systems
			7.3.2.1 Mass conservation
			7.3.2.2 Energy balance
	7.4 Entropy of a system
		7.4.1 Clausius inequality
		7.4.2 Entropy generation and increase
		7.4.3 Entropy of pure substances
			Example 7.2
				Solution
		7.4.4 Isentropic processes
	7.5 Exergy of solar receivers
		7.5.1 A system and its surroundings
		7.5.2 Exergy analysis
			7.5.2.1 Exergy of solar radiation
			7.5.2.2 Exergy of heat flows
			7.5.2.3 Exergy balance and efficiency
				Example 7.3
					Solution
	Nomenclature
	References
8 - Hydrodynamics of solar receivers
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Fluid properties
		8.2.1 Density
			Example 8.1
				Solution
		8.2.2 Viscosity
		8.2.3 Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
			8.2.3.1 Newtonian fluids
			8.2.3.2 Non-Newtonian fluids
	8.3 Hydrodynamic equations
		8.3.1 Equations for viscous flow
			8.3.1.1 Continuity equation
			8.3.1.2 Momentum equation
			8.3.1.3 Energy equation
			8.3.1.4 Boussinesq approximation
		8.3.2 Equations for inviscid flow
			8.3.2.1 Continuity equation
			8.3.2.2 Momentum equations
			8.3.2.3 Energy equation
		8.3.3 Governing equations of two-phase flows
			8.3.3.1 Flow of suspended solids
			8.3.3.2 Flow through porous media
			8.3.3.3 Liquid–gas flows
	8.4 Characteristics of fluid flows
		8.4.1 Laminar flows
		8.4.2 Turbulent flows
		8.4.3 Internal flows
	8.5 Flow stability
		8.5.1 Method of normal modes for stability analysis
		8.5.2 Instability in parallel flows
			8.5.2.1 Stability of viscous parallel flows
			8.5.2.2 Stability of inviscid parallel flows
		8.5.3 Thermal instability
		8.5.4 Centrifugal instability
			8.5.4.1 Criterion for inviscid flow
			8.5.4.2 Criterion for viscous flow
				Example 8.2
					Solution
	8.6 Pressure loss
		8.6.1 Friction losses
		8.6.2 Dynamic losses
			8.6.2.1 Local loss coefficients
			8.6.2.2 Darcy-Weisbach equation
	Nomeclature
	References
9 - Thermomechanical considerations in solar receivers
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Characteristics of structural materials
		9.2.1 Operational temperature range and thermal stability
		9.2.2 Thermophysical properties
		9.2.3 Flow pressure
		9.2.4 Operational aspects
		9.2.5 Availability and affordability of materials
	9.3 Major structural elements of solar receivers
		9.3.1 Surface receivers
		9.3.2 Volumetric receivers
			9.3.2.1 Conventional volumetric receivers
			9.3.2.2 Advanced volumetric receivers
	9.4 Temperature gradients
		9.4.1 Temperature gradients in surface receivers
		9.4.2 Temperature gradients in volumetric receivers
	9.5 Thermomechanical stresses
		9.5.1 Thermal stress
		9.5.2 Mechanical stress
	9.6 Thermomechanical strains
		9.6.1 Thermal strain
		9.6.2 Mechanical strain
			9.6.2.1 Material strength
			9.6.2.2 Hooke\'s law in two and three dimensions
			Example 9.1
		9.6.3 Relationships between thermomechanical stress and strain
		9.6.4 Thermal stress index
		9.6.5 Thermal shock and fatigue
			Example 9.2
	9.7 Thermomechanical properties of materials
		9.7.1 Absorber materials
			9.7.1.1 Copper
			9.7.1.2 Stainless steel
			9.7.1.3 Superalloys
			9.7.1.4 Ceramic materials
			9.7.1.5 Selective coatings
		9.7.2 Glazing materials
		9.7.3 Insulation materials
			Example 9.3
	Nomenclature
	References
10 - Modeling and optimization of solar receivers
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Concentrating solar collector configurations
		10.1.2 Building mathematical models
	10.2 Optical performance
		10.2.1 Linear parabolic collectors
		10.2.2 Images formed by perfect linear concentrators
			Example
			Solution:
		10.2.3 Images formed by imperfect linear concentrators
		10.2.4 Point focusing collectors
			10.2.4.1 Paraboloidal collectors
			10.2.4.2 Solar tower collector
			10.2.4.3 External receivers
			10.2.4.4 Volumetric receivers
			10.2.4.5 Direct-absorption volumetric receivers
			10.2.4.6 Indirect-absorption volumetric receivers
	10.3 Thermodynamic models
		10.3.1 Equations of flat-plate collectors
		10.3.2 Equations of concentrating collectors
			10.3.2.1 Line focusing collectors
				Example
				Solution:
				Example
				Solution:
			10.3.2.2 Point focusing collectors
				Example
				Solution:
		10.3.3 Exergetic performance
			Example
			Solution:
	10.4 Hydrodynamic models
		10.4.1 Single-phase flows
		10.4.2 Two-phase flows
	10.5 Heat transfer
		10.5.1 Conduction
		10.5.2 Convection
			10.5.2.1 Empirical models
			10.5.2.2 Boundary layer models
				Velocity boundary layer
				Thermal boundary layer
				Concentration boundary layer
				Boundary layer equations
		10.5.3 Radiation
	10.6 Thermomechanical performance
	10.7 Discretization of differential equation systems
		10.7.1 Finite difference
			10.7.1.1 Nodal network
			10.7.1.2 Finite difference form of the heat equation
			10.7.1.3 Explicit and implicit methods of discretization
		10.7.2 Finite element
			10.7.2.1 Weak or variational form of partial differential equations
			10.7.2.2 Galerkin\'s approximation and finite element interpolations
			10.7.2.3 Comparison with finite difference method
		10.7.3 Finite volume
	10.8 Economic performance
	10.9 System optimization
		10.9.1 Elements and processes
		10.9.2 System boundaries
		10.9.3 Optimization criteria
		10.9.4 Optimization models
			Example
			Solution:
		10.9.5 Selected studies
	10.10 Simulation programs
	Nomenclature
	Subscripts
	References
11 - Testing of solar receivers
	11.1 Introduction
		Example 11.1
		Solution
	11.2 Measurement of variables for performance evaluation of solar receivers
		11.2.1 Temperature
		11.2.2 Flow rate
			Example 11.2
				Solution
		11.2.3 Pressure
		11.2.4 Thermophysical properties of heat-transfer media
		11.2.5 Quality of steam
	11.3 Selected standard methods
		11.3.1 ISO 9806: 2017 solar energy–solar thermal collectors–test methods
		11.3.2 ASTM E905-87(2021) standard test method for determining thermal performance of tracking concentrating solar collectors
		11.3.3 ANSI/ASHRAE standard 93–2003 methods of testing to determine the thermal performance of solar collectors
	11.4 Progress in the development of solar receivers
		11.4.1 Selected project developments
			11.4.1.1 External receivers
			11.4.1.2 Cavity receivers
			11.4.1.3 Volumetric receivers
			11.4.1.4 Advanced liquid-based solar receivers
			11.4.1.5 Solid-based solar receivers
		11.4.2 Challenges and opportunities in the development of solar receivers
			11.4.2.1 Technological maturity
			11.4.2.2 Financial and policy instruments
			11.4.2.3 Solar and land resources
			11.4.2.4 Materials and supply chain
			11.4.2.5 Solar receiver and expertise
	Nomenclature
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Y
	Z
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