Soil clays: linking geology, biology, agriculture, and the environment

Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Table of Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 14
 References......Page 16
Authors......Page 18
 1.1 Soil......Page 20
 1.2 The Origin of Soils and Clays in Geological Time......Page 21
 1.3 Weathering as the Origin of (Most) Soils......Page 22
 1.4 From Rock to Soil: The Biological Factor in the Initial Stages of Rock Alteration and Soil Formation......Page 23
 1.5 Soil Science......Page 26
 1.6 Clays......Page 27
 1.7 Clay Mineral Formation......Page 28
 1.8 Soil Clay Mineralogy......Page 31
 1.9 A new approach to the study of soil clays......Page 32
 References......Page 33
 2.1 Basic Structures of Phyllosilicates......Page 36
 2.2 Lattice Substitutions......Page 38
 2.4 Residual Charge on 2:1 Structure due to Ionic Substitutions and Site Occupation......Page 40
 2.4.1 Names for 2:1 Structure Minerals in Soils......Page 41
 2.6 Cation Exchange in Interlayer Sites......Page 43
 2.7 Cation Exchange Sites on Clay Edges......Page 45
  2.8.1 Cation–Water Interaction......Page 47
   2.8.1.1 Cation–Water Interaction: Summary......Page 48
   2.8.1.5 Cation Exchange on Edge Sites: Summary......Page 49
  2.8.2 Overall Effect of pH on Exchange (Capture or Loss) of Cations......Page 50
 2.10 Mixed-Layered Clays......Page 51
 2.11 Identification of Layer Silicate Clays (2:1 and 1:1 Structures) by X-Ray Diffraction......Page 52
 2.12 Allophane and Imogolite......Page 53
 2.13 Iron Oxides, Hydroxides and Oxyhydroxides......Page 54
 2.15 Manganese Oxides......Page 55
 References......Page 56
 3.2 Geology of the Continental Surfaces......Page 60
  3.3.1 Silicates......Page 61
  3.3.2 Non-Silicates......Page 63
  3.3.3 The Initial Production of Clays in Weathering......Page 64
   3.3.4.2 Sediments......Page 66
   3.3.4.3 Loess and Dust......Page 67
 References......Page 70
  4.1.3 Volcanic Glass......Page 72
  4.1.6 Chlorites......Page 73
  4.2.1 Oxidation......Page 74
  4.2.3 Effects of pH......Page 75
 References......Page 76
 5.2 Topography......Page 78
  5.2.1 Interaction at the Water–Rock Interface......Page 79
  5.3.1 Alteration Profile......Page 82
  5.3.2 Rock Alteration by Pore Water......Page 83
  5.3.4 Geology and Alteration......Page 84
 References......Page 87
 6.2 Chemical Forces......Page 88
 6.3 Chemistry of Elements and Mineral Stability......Page 89
  6.4.1 Mineral Change: Loss of Mineralogical Identity......Page 90
  6.4.3 Interaction by Diffusion and Ion Exchange......Page 91
  6.4.4 Oxidation......Page 93
  6.5.2 Mineral Growth from Amorphous Materials......Page 94
  6.5.3 Mineral Transformation......Page 95
 References......Page 96
 7.1 Crystallisation from Incongruent Dissolution......Page 98
  7.2.1 Neogenesis......Page 99
   7.2.1.1 Thermodynamic Explanation of Stability of Minerals......Page 100
  7.2.2 Transformation of Minerals......Page 101
 7.3 Effect of Plants on Soil Clay Assemblages......Page 104
  7.3.2 Transformation of Pre-Existing Phyllosilicate Minerals of High Temperature Origin......Page 105
  7.3.3 Formation of Mixed-Layered 2:1 Clays......Page 106
  7.3.4 Formation of Palygorskite and Sepiolite in Soils......Page 107
   7.3.5.1 Interstratifications of Kaolinite and Smectite and Their Evolution......Page 108
  7.3.6 Crystallisation of 1:1 Clays in Soils......Page 109
  7.3.7 Formation of Oxyhydroxide Al- and Fe-Dominated Soil Clay Assemblages......Page 111
  7.3.8 Formation of Other Oxides......Page 112
  7.3.10 Biology and Its Effect on Clays and Clay Associations in Soils......Page 113
 References......Page 114
 8.2 Vermiculites (2:1)......Page 122
 8.4 Mixed-Layered 2:1 Minerals......Page 127
 8.5 Kaolin-Smectites Interstratified (1:1–2:1)......Page 132
 8.7 Halloysite (1:1)......Page 135
 8.8 Allophane (1:2 to 1:1) and Imogolite (1:2)......Page 140
 8.9 Palygorskite and Sepiolite (2:1 Si:Mg)......Page 142
 8.10 Oxides and Rarer Minerals......Page 144
 References......Page 145
Chapter 9: The Importance of Climate in the Formation of Soil Clays......Page 160
 9.1 Cold and Cool Zones......Page 161
 9.2 Warm Zone......Page 162
 9.3 Hot Zone......Page 163
 9.4 Mechanisms of Change......Page 165
 References......Page 166
 10.1 Organic Matter......Page 170
 10.2 Charges on Clay Particles......Page 171
 10.3 Organo-Mineral Interactions......Page 173
 10.4 Combined Indications on Links between Minerals and SOM......Page 179
 10.5 Formation and Stabilisation of Microaggregates......Page 180
  10.6.1 Organic Particle Size and Fixation on Different Clay-Sized Particles (OM Content and Clay-Size Fraction)......Page 183
  10.6.2 Formation of Macroaggregates......Page 184
  10.6.4 Macroaggregates and Soil Structure: The Formation of Fractures......Page 185
  10.6.6 Organic Matter and Clay Structures and Retention of Capillary Water......Page 186
 References......Page 187
 11.1 Clay Associations......Page 194
 11.2 Extraction of Soil Clays......Page 197
 11.3 Recommended Procedures......Page 201
 References......Page 202
 12.2 Identification and Analyses of Soil Clays by Chemical Extractions......Page 204
 12.5 Identification of Soil Clays by Electron Microscopy......Page 206
 12.7 Quantitative Analyses......Page 207
 References......Page 208
 13.1 Soil Clays and Surface Areas......Page 212
  13.2.1 Effect of Organic Matter on Surface Areas......Page 213
 13.4 Effect of Associations upon Charges on Soils and Soil Clays......Page 214
 13.5 Effects of Particle Size......Page 217
 13.6 Integration: Importance of Phenomena; Limitations of Measurements......Page 218
 References......Page 219
 14.1 Plant Nutrition......Page 222
 14.2 Soil Structure and Water Holding and Supply......Page 223
 14.3 Formation and Stabilisation of Pores......Page 225
 14.4 Aggregation, Pores and Soil Quality......Page 227
 14.5 Bulk Soil Physical Properties......Page 228
 14.6 Carbon Sequestration......Page 235
 14.7 Pollution and Its Remediation......Page 237
 14.8 Medicine......Page 239
 14.9 Forensics......Page 240
 14.10 Archaeology and Environmental History......Page 241
 References......Page 242
 15.2 Clays (from Chapter 2)......Page 248
 15.3 Formation of Clays in Soils (from Chapters 3–7)......Page 249
 15.4 Types of Clays and Their Origins (from Chapters 8 and 9)......Page 251
 15.5 Associations of Clays in Soils (from Chapter 10)......Page 253
 15.6 Extraction of Clays from Soil, and Their Identification and Quantification (from Chapters 11 and 12)......Page 255
 15.8 Role of Soil Clays in Applications in Agriculture, the Environment and Society (from Chapter 14)......Page 256
 15.9 Résumé......Page 258
 Bibliography......Page 259
 A.2 Decomposition Methods......Page 260
 A.3.2 Principles for Decomposition......Page 261
 A.3.3 Decomposition Examples......Page 264
 A.3.4 Peak Shape and Intensity Change: The Comparative Method......Page 266
 A.3.5 Surface Area......Page 267
 A.4 Centre of Gravity......Page 268
 3.5.2 Peaks......Page 269
 References......Page 270
Index......Page 272