Software Engineering for Robotics

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1 Software Product Line Engineering for Robotics
	1 Introduction
	2 System and Software Flexibility
	3 Robotic Software Product Lines
	4 Domain Engineering
		4.1 Feature-Oriented Domain Analysis
		4.2 Stability-Oriented Domain Analysis
		4.3 Reference Architectures
	5 Application Engineering
	6 Conclusions
	References
2 Towards Autonomous Robot Evolution
	1 The Grand Vision of Robot Evolution
		1.1 Researching Evolution Through Robots
		1.2 Supervised Robot Evolution: Breeding Farms
		1.3 Open-Ended Robot Evolution: Out in the Wild
	2 Evolutionary Robotics
	3 Evolvable Robot Hardware: Challenges and Directions
		3.1 An Engineering Approach
			3.1.1 What Would We Evolve?
			3.1.2 How Would We Physically Build the Evolved Robot's Body?
		3.2 A Bio-inspired (Modular or Multi-cellular) Approach
	4 The Autonomous Robot Evolution Project
		4.1 Overall System Architecture
		4.2 The ARE Robot Fabricator
	5 Concluding Remarks
	References
3 Composition, Separation of Roles and Model-Driven Approaches as Enabler of a Robotics Software Ecosystem
	1 Aims and Challenges of Software Engineering for Robotics
		1.1 Carving Out the Specifics of Software for Robotic Systems
		1.2 The Power of Ecosystems and the Power of Separation of Roles
		1.3 The Power of Composition
		1.4 Aiming for a Software Business Ecosystem for Robotics
		1.5 The Role of Model-Driven Software Engineering and of Data Sheets
	2 Structures for a Robotics Software Business Ecosystem
		2.1 (Meta-)Models and Tiers
		2.2 Tier 1: Foundations
		2.3 Model-Driven Tools to Access and Use Tier 1 Structures
		2.4 Tier 2: Definitions
		2.5 Tier 3: Implementations
		2.6 Coverage and Conformance
	3 Details of Selected Concepts at Tier 1
		3.1 The Software Component Model
		3.2 Communication Patterns and Services
		3.3 Middleware-Agnostic Software Components
		3.4 Early Binding of Semantics, Late Binding of Technology
		3.5 Horizontal Versus Vertical Composition
		3.6 The Data Sheet
		3.7 Dependency Graphs and Constraints on Services
		3.8 Tasks, Skills and the Behavior Interface
	4 Links Between Composition Structures, Roles and Tools
		4.1 The Role of the Domain Expert (Tier 2)
		4.2 The View of the Component Developer (Tier 3)
		4.3 The View of the Behavior Developer (Tier 3)
		4.4 Middleware-Agnostic Components and Mixed-Middleware Systems
		4.5 The Mixed-Port Component as Migration Path
		4.6 Deployment-Time Configuration of Trigger Chains
		4.7 Robotic Behavior Coordination: Skills, Tasks, World Model
	5 State of the Art, State of the Practice and Conclusion
	References
4 Testing Industrial Robotic Systems: A New Battlefield!
	1 Introduction
	2 Testing Industrial Robots: Challenges and Recent Advances
		2.1 Test Generation
			2.1.1 Test-Input Generation
			2.1.2 Test-Output Generation
		2.2 Test Planning Under Resource Constraints
	3 Test Generation
		3.1 Stress Test-Trajectories Generation with Constraint Programming
		3.2 Metamorphic Testing of Robots
	4 Test Planning
		4.1 Test Suite Reduction
		4.2 Test Scheduling and Distribution
			4.2.1 Test Scheduling with Global Resources
			4.2.2 Test Scheduling with Rotational Diversity
	5 Test Execution
		5.1 Automated Regression Testing for Industrial Robots
		5.2 Generating and Executing Test Cases on an Integrated Painting System
	6 Discussion and Conclusion
	References
5 Gaining Confidence in the Trustworthiness of Robotic and Autonomous Systems
	1 Introduction
	2 How to Gain Confidence in the Trustworthiness of a System
	3 Ensuring Correctness from Specification to Implementation
		3.1 What Can Be Done at the Code Level?
		3.2 What Can Be Done at the Design Level?
	4 What Can Be Done to Increase the Productivity of Simulation-Based Testing?
		4.1 Increasing the Degree of Automation in Simulation-Based Testing of RAS
		4.2 Introducing Agency into Test Environments for Simulation-Based Verification of RAS
	5 Conclusions
	6 Challenges for the Verification and Validation of RAS
	References
6 Robot Accident Investigation: A Case Study in ResponsibleRobotics
	1 Introduction
	2 The Practice of Accident Investigation
	3 Robot Accidents
		3.1 The Scope for Social Robot Accidents
	4 Responsible Robotics
		4.1 Ethically Aligned Design
		4.2 Standards in Social Robotics
	5 A Draft Framework for Social Robot Accident Investigation
		5.1 Technology
		5.2 Process
		5.3 The Application of the Framework
	6 Concluding Discussion
		6.1 RoboTIPS
		6.2 The Bigger Picture
	References
7 Verifiable Autonomy and Responsible Robotics
	1 Introduction
	2 What Is the Problem?
		2.1 Concerns About Autonomy
		2.2 No Psychiatrists for Robots?
	3 Background
		3.1 Autonomy
		3.2 Verification
		3.3 Trustworthiness
	4 Autonomous Robotics
		4.1 Architectures
			4.1.1 Robot Architectures: Modularity
			4.1.2 Robot Architectures: Transparency
			4.1.3 Robot Architectures: Verifiability
		4.2 Verification of Cyber-Physical Systems
	5 Verifiable Autonomy
		5.1 Robot Architectures: Responsibility
		5.2 Hybrid Agent Architectures
		5.3 Verifying (Rational) Agents
		5.4 Agent Java Pathfinder (AJPF)
		5.5 Heterogeneous Verification
		5.6 Problems: Requirements
	6 Applications: `Act as Humans Should'
		6.1 Towards UAS Certification
		6.2 `Driver less' Car Analysis?
	7 Applications: Self-Awareness
		7.1 Explainability
		7.2 Self-Awareness
		7.3 Awareness of Acceptable Boundaries
	8 Applications: Beyond the Predictable
		8.1 Simple Ethical Ordering
		8.2 Ethical Governors (See also Chap. 6)
		8.3 Multiple Ethical Theories
	9 Responsibility
	10 Concluding Remarks
	References
8 Verification of Autonomous Robots: A Roboticist's Bottom-UpApproach
	1 Introduction
	2 Formal Models and V&V
		2.1 Models and Methods
		2.2 V&V Approaches
	3 Autonomous System Software and Formal Models
		3.1 Software Architecture
		3.2 Directly Programming with Formal Models
		3.3 ``Hidden'' Formal Models
		3.4 Learned Models
		3.5 No Model
		3.6 Some ``Specification'' Models
		3.7 Discussion
	4 The GenoM Tool
		4.1 GenoM Specification
		4.2 GenoM Templates
	5 Not A Toy Example
	6 Synthesized BIP, FIACRE, UPPAAL Formal Models
		6.1 RT-BIP
		6.2 UPPAAL and UPPAAL-SMC
		6.3 FIACRE
	7 Putting These Formal Models to Use
		7.1 Online Runtime Verification with BIP
		7.2 Offline Verification with UPPAAL
		7.3 Offline and Online Verification with FIACRE
	8 Conclusion and Future Work
	References
9 RoboStar Technology: A Roboticist's Toolbox for Combined Proof, Simulation, and Testing
	1 Introduction
	2 RoboStar Vision
	3 Autonomous Vehicle
	4 RoboChart Model
		4.1 Overall Structure
		4.2 Robotic Platform
		4.3 B_acs Controller
		4.4 Verification
	5 Simulation
		5.1 RoboSim: d-model
		5.2 RoboSim: p-model
		5.3 Simulation Code
	6 Environment Modeling
		6.1 RoboWorld Syntax
		6.2 RoboWorld Semantics
	7 Related Work
	8 Final Considerations and Future Work
	References
10 CorteX: A Software Framework for Interoperable, Plug-and-Play, Distributed, Robotic Systems of Systems
	1 Introduction
	2 Background and Related Work
		2.1 Software-Engineering Requirements in the Nuclear Industry
		2.2 Related Work
	3 Problem Statement
	4 CorteX Design
		4.1 Standard Interface
		4.2 Interoperablility
		4.3 Core Architecture
		4.4 Distributing CorteX Data
		4.5 Control System Architecture
		4.6 CorteX Explorer
	5 Performance Evaluation
		5.1 A Typical CorteX System
		5.2 Memory Footprint
		5.3 Real-Time Characterisation
	6 Software Infrastructure Quality and Maintainability of the High-Performing System
		6.1 Life-Cycle Management
		6.2 Unit Testing
		6.3 Optimising the CorteX Codebase
	7 Conclusion
	References
11 Mutation Testing for RoboChart
	1 Introduction
	2 RoboChart
	3 Mutation Testing
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Core Concepts
		3.3 Uses of Mutation Testing
		3.4 Practical Limitations
	4 Mutation Testing and Wodel
	5 Mutation Operators for RoboChart
	6 Automated Test-Generation
	7 Experimental Evaluation
	8 Conclusions
	References
12 Languages for Specifying Missions of Robotic Applications
	1 Introduction
	2 Programming Languages and IDEs for Robotic Applications
		2.1 Programming Languages for Robotic Applications
		2.2 IDEs for Developing Robotic Applications
	3 Robot Mission Specification
		3.1 Internal DSLs
			3.1.1 ROS Behavior Tree
			3.1.2 SMACH
			3.1.3 C-Based Agent Behavior Specification Language
		3.2 External DSLs
			3.2.1 NaoText
			3.2.2 EasyC
			3.2.3 BehaviorTree.CPP
			3.2.4 Unreal Engine 4 Behavior Trees
			3.2.5 Choregraphe
			3.2.6 Microsoft Visual Programming Language
			3.2.7 Open Roberta
			3.2.8 FLYAQ
			3.2.9 Aseba
			3.2.10 LEGO Mindstorms EV3
			3.2.11 MissionLab
			3.2.12 RobotC
	4 Making Robots Usable in the Everyday Life
		4.1 Mission Specification Patterns
		4.2 PROMISE
	5 Putting PROMISE into Practice
	6 Discussion and Perspectives for Future Research
	References
13 RoboStar Technology: Modelling Uncertainty in RoboChart Using Probability
	1 Introduction
	2 Probabilistic Robotics
		2.1 Abstractions of the Real World
		2.2 Hardware Failures
			2.2.1 Sensor and Actuation Noise
			2.2.2 Hardware Resilience
		2.3 Approximate Control Algorithms
			2.3.1 Robot Swarms
			2.3.2 Bio-inspired Control
		2.4 Controller Synthesis
		2.5 Motion Planning
			2.5.1 Probabilistic Satisfaction Guarantees
			2.5.2 Cost-optimal Planning
			2.5.3 Mission Goals and Expected Rewards
		2.6 Self-Adaptation
		2.7 Summary
	3 Probability in RoboChart
		3.1 RoboChart with Probabilities
		3.2 Example Pose-Estimation Algorithm: Ransac
	4 Model-Fitting Methods
	5 Ransac Algorithm
		5.1 Pose Estimation
		5.2 The Algorithm
		5.3 Analysis of the Algorithm's Performance
		5.4 Summary
	6 Model Checking Ransac
		6.1 The Ransac PRISM Model
		6.2 Results
	7 Stronger Guarantees
		7.1 RoboChart Model
		7.2 Formal Proof of Ransac
		7.3 Engineering Method
		7.4 Mechanisation
	8 Related Work and Conclusion
	Ransac in PRISM
	References
14 Panel Discussion: Regulation and Ethics of Robotics and Autonomous Systems
	1 Introduction
		1.1 The Value of Autonomous Systems
		1.2 Functional Safety in Critical Systems
		1.3 Cultural Differences in Regulation
		1.4 Developing Safety Standards
	2 Case Study: Certification in Autonomous Vehicles
		2.1 Regulating Autonomous Vehicles
		2.2 MUSICC: Multi-User Scenario Catalogue for CAVs (Connected Autonomous Vehicles)
		2.3 VeriCAV
		2.4 Conclusions and Future Work
	3 Q&A Session
		What Is the Difference Between Safety of Autonomous Systems in General and for Autonomous Robotics in Particular?
		Are There Different Challenges in Different Sectors?
		Is There a Belief that Regulation Is a Barrier to Innovation?
		What About Societal Acceptance of Autonomous Systems?
	References