Society at a Glance: Asia/Pacific 2019

Foreword
Table of contents
Acronyms and conventional signs
	Asia/Pacific countries and economies ISO codes
	OECD Asia/Pacific countries ISO Codes
	Conventional signs
Executive summary
	Economic growth has been substantial across Asia and the Pacific in recent years, but it has not always been inclusive
	Public social expenditure and tax revenue remain low in Asia and the Pacific
	Informal employment is widespread across most of Asia and the Pacific
	Digitalisation and changes in the nature of work and labour markets can further challenge social protection development
	Technological advancements can also help administration of benefits and their delivery
	Population ageing is another social policy challenge affecting many countries in the region
	Scaling up social investment and increasing tax revenue is needed to effectively combat poverty
OECD/Korea Policy Centre
Chapter 1.
Introduction to Society at a Glance Asia/Pacific
	The framework of OECD social indicators
	The selection and description of indicators
		General social context indicators
			Table 1.1. List of general context indicators
		Self-sufficiency indicators
			Table 1.2. List of self-sufficiency indicators
		Equity
			Table 1.3. List of equity indicators
		Health
			Table 1.4. List of health indicators
		Social cohesion
			Table 1.5. List of social cohesion indicators
	What can be found in this publication?
	Note
	References
Chapter 2.
Extending coverage and the future of social protection in Asia and the Pacific
	Introduction
	Strong growth, but social expenditure is low in Asia/Pacific
		Economies in Asia/Pacific often enjoy steady economic and employment growth
			Figure 2.1. Strong growth is expected to continue in Asia/Pacific
			Figure 2.2. Welfare states in OECD countries took a long time to develop
			Box 2.1. Defining social expenditure
			Figure 2.3. Public social spending in Asia/Pacific is about one-third of the OECD average
			Figure 2.4. Tax revenue in Asian countries is well below the OECD average
		Technological progress will continue to contribute to growth but there are displacement risks for manual and routine jobs
		A strategy for quality jobs and inclusive growth
			Box 2.2. The new OECD Jobs Strategy (2018)
	Informal employment is widespread in Asia and the Pacific
		Box 2.3. Informal employment, the informal sector and the informal economy
		Figure 2.5. Informal employment concerns over two/thirds of workers in Asia and the Pacific
		Who are the informal workers and what are their employment conditions?
			Figure 2.6. Most informal workers are employees or own-account workers with contributory family workers most prevalent in the poorest countries
			Figure 2.7. In many Asian countries, the majority of employees is in the informal sector
			Figure 2.8. Informal workers often put in very long hours.
	The future of Social Protection in Asia and the Pacific
		Box 2.4. Social protection and safeguarding minimum employment conditions in Australia
		The challenge of automation
		Digital labour markets
			Box 2.5. Aadhaar: the use of biometric smartcards in social service delivery in India
			Box 2.6. Employment Accident insurance for drivers of on-line taxi services
		Social protection challenges
		Options for social security protection
			Table 2.1. A spectrum of possible income maintenance programmes
	Examples of reform avenues
		Extending social insurance in China and Korea
		Social security and healthcare reform in Indonesia
		Extending health insurance in India
		Non-contributory social support to the most vulnerable
			Box 2.7. The Benazir Income Support Programme (BISP) in Pakistan
	Concluding remarks
	Notes
	References
Chapter 3.
General context indicators
	GDP per capita
		Definition and measurement
		Figure 3.1. GDP per capita varies considerably across the Asia/Pacific region
		Figure 3.2. Many Asian economies continue to grow at pace, but the rate of growth has declined somewhat in recent years
		Figure 3.3. Poorer countries in the Asia/Pacific tend to grow faster than richer ones
	Fertility
		Definition and measurement
		Further reading
			Figure 3.4. Despite rapid declines, fertility rates in Asia/Pacific are still higher than in OECD
			Figure 3.5. Richer countries have lower fertility rates
			Figure 3.6. Countries with high fertility tend to also have high adolescent birth rates
	Marriage and divorce
		Definition and measurement
		Figure 3.7. In most countries, marriage rates increased since 2000
		Figure 3.8. In most countries, divorce rates increased since 2000
		Figure 3.9. The mean age of first marriage has increased by 3 years since 1990
	International migration
		Definition and measurement
		Further reading
			Figure 3.10. The total number of refugee stock (including asylum seekers) declined in Asia/Pacific though OECD countries recorded an unprecedented number of 7.3 million
			Figure 3.11. Migrant flows from the Asia/Pacific to the OECD almost doubled after 2000
			Figure 3.12. Approximately two thirds of migration remittance flows in Asia/Pacific are destined to India, China, and Philippines after 2006
	Old-age support ratio
		Data and measurement
		Figure 3.13. Populations are ageing and the old-age support ratio will more than halve in the Asia Pacific
		Figure 3.14. Pensioner population projections
Chapter 4.
Self-sufficiency
	Labour force participation
		Definition and measurement
		Figure 4.1. Labour force participation rates are diverse across Asia/Pacific economies and by age group
		Figure 4.2. Labour force projections, selected countries, 2016-40
	Employment
		Definition and measurement
		Figure note
			Figure 4.3. About 60% of the population over age 15 are employed in Asia/Pacific economies
			Figure 4.4. People in high-income economies are more likely to work in the non-agricultural sector
			Figure 4.5. Informal employment prevails in Asia/Pacific economies
	Early childhood education and care
		Definition and measurement
		Further reading
			Figure 4.6. Enrolment in pre-primary education in Asia/Pacific economies is increasing
			Figure 4.7. Gender gaps in pre-primary education participation are small
			Figure 4.8. Higher rates of pre-primary education participation are associated with higher PISA scores
	Educational attainment and student performance
		Definition and measurement
		Figure note
			Figure 4.9. On average those 25 years and older in the Asia/Pacific region have 9 years of school education
			Figure 4.10. The average years in schooling increased across the Asia/Pacific region over the past decade
			Figure 4.11. Students in the some Asia/Pacific cities outscored students from the OECD
	Education spending
		Data and measurement
		Further reading
			Figure 4.12. Public investment in education increased across Asia Pacific countries
			Figure 4.13. Rich countries do not necessary spend more on education
			Figure 4.14. Education as percentage of GDP and public spending per primary student
Chapter 5.
Equity
	Poverty
		Definition and measurement
		Further reading
			Figure 5.1. The share of people living in extreme poverty has almost halved across Asia/Pacific during the last decade
			Figure 5.2. The prevalence of undernourishment is lowest in countries with a lower share of people living in extreme poverty
			Figure 5.3. Poverty generally declined more rapidly in countries with strong GDP growth
	Income inequality
		Definition and measurement
		Figure 5.4. Income inequality of the Asia/Pacific remains higher than the OECD average
		Figure 5.5. S90/S10 income ratio in most Asia/Pacific economies declined over last decade
		Figure 5.6. Economic growth and income inequality seem unrelated
	Pensions: coverage and replacement rates
		Definition and measurement
		Figure 5.7. There is huge variation of pension coverage in the Asia/Pacific region
		Figure 5.8. For women replacement rates are below, or at best equal to, those for men
		Figure 5.9. Countries with a lower GDP per capita have lower pension coverage
	Public social expenditure
		Data and measurement
		Figure 5.10. Public social expenditure across the Asia/Pacific region are generally well below the OECD average
		Figure 5.11. Social spending distribution varies across countries
		Figure 5.12. Public social spending and poverty
	Solidarity
		Data and measurement
		Figure 5.13. The propensity to give to charity varies widely across Asia/Pacific countries
		Figure 5.14. The share of people who helped a stranger increased slightly in the Asia/Pacific
		Figure 5.15. On average, one in four people volunteers time to an organisation across OECD and Asia/Pacific
Chapter 6.
Health
	Life expectancy
		Definition and measurement
		Figure 6.1. Life expectancy at birth continues to rise in the Asia/Pacific region
		Figure 6.2. More and more people, in Asia reach the age of 65
		Figure 6.3. Higher national income (as measured by GDP per capita) is generally associated with higher life expectancy at birth
	Infant and child mortality
		Definition and measurement
		Further reading
			Figure 6.4. The infant mortality rate has halved, while huge disparities exist across countries
			Figure 6.5. Mothers experienced high incidence of infant mortality when they have low education and wealth and live in rural areas
			Figure 6.6. The child mortality rate halved to 24.6 since 2000, but the gender gap still exists
	Child malnutrition (including under nutrition and overweight)
		Definition and measurement
		Further reading
			Figure 6.7. Many countries in the Asia/Pacific region have a high prevalence of stunting and wasting among young children
			Figure 6.8. Countries with a higher prevalence of underweight children have higher child mortality rates
			Figure 6.9. The number of overweight children has increased in most Asia/Pacific countries
	Health expenditure
		Definition and measurement
		Figure 6.10. Total health expenditure varies considerably across Asia and the Pacific
		Figure 6.11. Health expenditure per capita increased over the past decade
		Figure 6.12. Public/private health financing ratios are relatively stable for most countries
	Hospital activities
		Definition and measurement
		Figure 6.13. The average hospital bed availability has diminished somewhat across the Asia/Pacific region
		Figure 6.14. Hospital discharge rates vary widely across countries
		Figure 6.15. ALOS for acute care in Asia/Pacific is below the OECD
		Figure 6.16. Countries with more hospital beds tend to have higher discharge rates and longer ALOS
Chapter 7.
Social cohesion indicators
	Life satisfaction
		Data and measurement
		Figure Note
			Figure 7.1. Life satisfaction and trends therein vary considerably across countries
			Figure 7.2. Life satisfaction seems broadly similar for men and women, 2015-17 average
			Figure 7.3. People in wealthy countries tend to be more satisfied with life than those in less wealthy countries
	Confidence in institutions
		Data and measurement
		Figure Note
			Figure 7.4. Confidence in national governments is higher in the Asia/Pacific region than in OECD countries
			Figure 7.5. Confidence in financial institutions increased in most Asia/Pacific economies
			Figure 7.6. Corruption is perceived to be lower in richer countries
	Trust and safety
		Data and measurement
		Figure Note
			Figure 7.7. Women feel less secure walking alone at night than men
			Figure 7.8. Trend in crime over the last decade varies across countries
			Figure 7.9. Confidence in the local police remains high
	Tolerance
		Data and measurement
		Figure Note
			Figure 7.10. OECD countries are more likely to think their society is a good place to live for immigrants than economies in the Asia/Pacific region
			Figure 7.11. Variation in perceived tolerance for ethnic minorities
			Figure 7.12. Perceived tolerance for gays and lesbians increased in OECD and Asia/Pacific countries over the last decade
	Voting
		Figure Note
			Data and measurement
			Figure 7.13. Electoral participation has generally declined in most countries
			Figure 7.14. Confidence in fairness of elections generally increased in the Asia Pacific region
			Figure 7.15. Confidence in fairness of elections for men and women in the region