Social psychology

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
About the Authors
Special Tips for Students
1 Introducing Social Psychology
	Defining Social Psychology
		TRY IT! Conflicting Social Influences
		Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense
		How Social Psychology Differs From Its Closest Cousins
		TRY IT! Social Situations and Shyness
	The Power of the Situation
		Underestimating the Power of the Situation
		The Importance of Construal
		#trending Medals for Sustainability!
	Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives
		The Self‐Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves
			Suffering and Self‐Justification
		The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate
	Why Study Social Psychology?
	Summary
	Test Yourself
2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research
	Social Psychology: An Empirical Science
		TRY IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s Your Prediction?
		Formulating Hypotheses and Theories
			Inspiration from Previous Theories and Research
			Hypotheses Based on Personal Observations
	Research Designs
		The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior
			Ethnography
			Archival Analysis
			Limits of the Observational Method
		The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior
			Surveys
			Limits of the Correlational Method: Correlation does not Equal Causation
		TRY IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the Difference
		The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions
			Independent and Dependent Variables
			Internal Validity in Experiments
			External Validity in Experiments
			Field Experiments
			Replications and Meta‐Analysis
			#trending Correlation Does Not Equal Causation
			Basic Versus Applied Research
	New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research
		Culture and Social Psychology
		Social Neuroscience
	Ethical Issues in Social Psychology
	Summary
	Test Yourself
3 Social Cognition: How We ThinkAbout the Social World
	On Automatic Pilot: Low‐Effort Thinking
		People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking With Schemas
		Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility and Priming
		Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self‐Fulfilling Prophecy
		#trending Do You Believe in Astrology?
	Types of Automatic Thinking
		Automatic Goal Pursuit
		Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the Body and the Mind
		Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental Heuristics
			How Easily Does it Come to Mind? The Availability Heuristic
			How Similar is A to B? The Representativeness Heuristic
			Personality Tests and The Representativeness Heuristic
		TRY IT! Reasoning Quiz
	Cultural Differences in Social Cognition
		Cultural Determinants of Schemas
		Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking
	Controlled Social Cognition: High‐Effort Thinking
		Controlled Thinking and Free Will
		TRY IT! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future?
		Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning
		Improving Human Thinking
		TRY IT! How Well Do You Reason?
		Watson Revisited
	Summary
	Test Yourself
4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People
	Nonverbal Communication
		Try It! Using Your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue
		Facial Expressions of Emotion
			Evolution and Facial Expressions
			Why is Decoding Sometimes Difficult?
		Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal Communication
	First Impressions: Quick But Long‐Lasting
		#trending First Impressions Formed Online
		The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions
	Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question
		The Nature of the Attribution Process
		The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External Attributions
		The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists
			The Role of Perceptual Salience in the Fundamental Attribution Error
			The Two‐Step Attribution Process
		Self‐Serving Attributions
		The “Bias Blind Spot”
	Culture and Social Perception
		Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking
			Social Neuroscience Evidence
		Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Attribution Error
		Culture and Other Attributional Biases
	Summary
	Test Yourself
5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context
	The Origins and Nature of the Self‐Concept
		Cultural Influences on the Self‐Concept
		TRY IT! A Measure of Independence and Interdependence
		Functions of the Self
	Self‐Knowledge
		Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
			Focusing on the Self: Self‐Awareness Theory
			TRY IT! Measure Your Private Self‐Consciousness
			Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know
		Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior
			Self‐Perception Theory
			Understanding Our Emotions: The Two‐Factor Theory of Emotion
			Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal
			Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation
			Mind‐sets and Motivation
		#trending Growth Mindset in the Classroom
		Using Other People to Know Ourselves
			Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others
			Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views
	Self‐Control: The Executive Function of the Self
	Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage
		Ingratiation and Self‐Handicapping
		Culture, Impression Management, and Self‐Enhancement
	Summary
	Test Yourself
6 Cognitive Dissonance and the Need to Protect Our Self‐Esteem
	The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: Protecting Our Self‐Esteem
		Decisions, Decisions, Decisions
			Distorting Our Likes and Dislikes
			The Permanence of the Decision
			Creating the Illusion of Irrevocability
		The Justification of Effort
		Counterattitudinal Behavior
			Counterattitudinal Behavior Toward Consequential Issues
			The Ben Franklin Effect: Justifying Acts of Kindness
			Dehumanizing the Enemy: Justifying Cruelty
			TRY IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good
			Justifying Our Own Immoral Acts
		Avoiding Temptations
		The Hypocrisy Paradigm
		Dissonance Across Cultures
	Advances and Extensions of Cognitive Dissonance Theory
		Self‐Affirmation Theory
		Try It! Values Affirmation Writing Exercise
		Dissonance in Close Relationships: Self‐Evaluation Maintenance Theory
	Some Concluding Thoughts on Dissonance and Self‐Esteem
		#trending Law and Cognitive Dissonance
		Overcoming Dissonance
		Narcissism and the Dangers of Too Much Self‐Esteem
		TRY IT! Measuring Your Narcissism
	Summary
	Test Yourself
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings
	The Nature and Origin of Attitudes
		Where Do Attitudes Come From?
			Cognitively Based Attitudes
			Affectively Based Attitudes
		Try It! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes
			Behaviorally Based Attitudes
		Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes
	When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
		Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors
		Predicting Deliberative Behaviors
			Specific Attitudes
			Subjective Norms
			Perceived Behavioral Control
		#trending Predicting Environmentally Friendly Action
	How Do Attitudes Change?
		Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited
		Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change
			The Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion
			The Motivation to Pay Attention to the Arguments
			The Ability to Pay Attention to the Arguments
			How to Achieve Long‐Lasting Attitude Change
		Emotion and Attitude Change
			Fear‐Arousing Communications
			Emotions as a Heuristic 
			Emotion and Different Types of Attitudes
		Attitude Change and the Body
	The Power of Advertising
		How Advertising Works
		Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control?
			Debunking the Claims about Subliminal Advertising
			Laboratory Evidence for Subliminal Influence
		Try It! Consumer Brand Attitudes
		Advertising and Culture
	Resisting Persuasive Messages
		Attitude Inoculation
		Being Alert to Product Placement
		Resisting Peer Pressure
		When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Reactance Theory
	Summary
	Test Yourself
8 Conformity and Obedience: Influencing Behavior
	Conformity: When and Why
	Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right”
		The Importance of Being Accurate
		When Informational Conformity Backfires
		When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence?
			When the Situation is Ambiguous
			When the Situation is a Crisis
			When Other People are Experts
	Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted
		Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line‐Judgment Studies
		The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited
		The Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence
		TRY IT! Unveiling Normative Social Influence by Breaking the Rules
		When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence?
			When the Group is Important
			When One Has No Allies in the Group 
			When the Group’s Culture is Collectivistic
		#trending Social Norms and Bigotry
		Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many
	Conformity Tactics
		The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms
		Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the “Boomerang Effect”
		Other Tactics of Social Influence
	Obedience to Authority
		The Milgram Study
		The Role of Normative Social Influence
		The Role of Informational Social Influence
		Other Reasons Why We Obey
			Adhering to the Wrong Norm
			Self‐Justification
			The Loss of Personal Responsibility
		The Obedience Studies, Then and Now
	Summary
	Test Yourself
9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups
	What Is a Group?
		Why Do People Join Groups?
		The Composition and Functions of Groups
			Social Norms
			Social Roles
			Group Cohesiveness
			Group Diversity
		#trending Cooperative and Corruptive Tendencies
	Individual Behavior in a Group Setting
		Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us
			Simple Versus Difficult Tasks
			Arousal and the Dominant Response 
			Why the Presence of Others Causes Arousal
		Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us
		Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: Who Slacks Off the Most?
		Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd
			Deindividuation Makes People Feel Less Accountable
			Deindividuation Increases Obedience to Group Norms 
			Deindividuation Online
	Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One?
		Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving
			Failure to Share Unique Information
			Groupthink: Many Heads, One Mind
		Group Polarization: Going to Extremes
		Leadership in Groups
			Leadership and Personality 
			Leadership Styles
			The Right Person in the Right Situation
			Gender and Leadership 
			Culture and Leadership
	Conflict and Cooperation
		Social Dilemmas
		Try It! Beyond the two‐person Prisoner’s Dilemma: The Public Goods Game
			Increasing Cooperation in the Prisoner’s Dilemma
		Using Threats to Resolve Conflict
			Effects of Communication
		Negotiation and Bargaining
	Summary
	Test Yourself
10 Attraction and Relationships: From Initial Impressions to Long‐Term Intimacy
	What Predicts Attraction?
		The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect
		Similarity
			Opinions and Personality
			Interests and Experiences
			Appearance
			Genetics
			Some Final Comments About Similarity
		#trending “Hook‐Up Culture” and Today’s Youth
		Reciprocal Liking
		Physical Attractiveness
			What is Attractive?
			Cultural Standards of Beauty 
			The Power of Familiarity 
			Assumptions About Attractive People
		Evolution and Mate Selection
			Evolution and Sex Differences
			Alternate Perspectives On Sex Differences
	Making Connections in the Digital World
		Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era
		The Promise and Pitfalls of Meeting People Online
	Love and Close Relationships
		Defining Love: Companionship and Passion
		Try It! Passionate Love Scale
		Culture and Love
		Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships
		Your Body and Brain in Love
	Assessing Relationships: Satisfaction and Breaking Up
		Theories of Relationship Satisfaction
			Social Exchange Theory
			Equity Theory
		The Process and Experience of Breaking Up
	Summary
	Test Yourself
11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help?
	Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help?
		Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes
			Kin Selection
			The Reciprocity Norm
			Try It! The Dictator Game
			Group Selection
		Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping
		Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping
	Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Some People Help More Than Others?
		Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality
		Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior
		Try It! Empathic Concern
		Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior
		Religion and Prosocial Behavior
		#trending When Altruistic Behavior Becomes Risky
		The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior
			Effects of Positive Moods: Feel Good, Do Good
			Feel Bad, Do Good
	Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help?
		Environment: Rural Versus Urban
		Residential Mobility
		The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect
			Noticing an Event
			Interpreting the Event as an Emergency
			Assuming Responsibility
			Knowing How to Help
			Deciding to Implement the Help
		Diffusion of Responsibility in Cyberspace
		Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics
	How Can Helping Be Increased?
		Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders Will Intervene
		Increasing Volunteerism
	Summary
	Test Yourself
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It?
	Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional?
		The Evolutionary View
			Aggression in Other Animals
		Culture and Aggression
			Changes in Aggression Across Time and Cultures
			Cultures of Honor
		Gender and Aggression
			Physical Aggression
			Relational Aggression
		Learning to Behave Aggressively
		Some Physiological Influences
			The Effects of Alcohol
			The Effects of Pain and Heat
	Social Situations and Aggression
		Frustration and Aggression
		Provocation and Reciprocation
		Try It! Video Games and Aggression
		Weapons as Aggressive Cues
		Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault
			Motivations for Rape
			Sexual Scripts and the Problem of Consent
	Violence and the Media
		Studying the Effects of Media Violence
			Experimental Studies
			Longitudinal Studies
		The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect
	How to Decrease Aggression
		Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression?
			Using Punishment on Violent Adults
		Can We Release Anger by Indulging It?
			The Effects of Aggressive Acts on Subsequent Aggression
			Blaming the Victim of Our Aggression
		What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger?
			Venting Versus Self‐Awareness
			Training in Communication and Problem‐Solving Skills
			Try It! Controlling Your Anger
			Getting Apologies Right
			Countering Dehumanization by Building Empathy
		#trending “Re‐accommodation”: The United Airlines Debacle
		Disrupting the Rejection‐Rage Cycle
	Summary
	Test Yourself
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures
	Defining Prejudice
		The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes
			Are Positive Stereotypes Good?
		Try It! Stereotypes and Aggression
		The Affective Component: Emotions
		The Behavioral Component: Discrimination
			Try It! Identifying and Changing Your Prejudices
			Institutionalized Discrimination
			Everyday Discrimination
			From Prejudice to Discrimination
	Detecting Hidden Prejudices
		Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices
		Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices
	The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim
		The Self‐Fulfilling Prophecy
		Social Identity Threat
	Causes of Prejudice
		Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules
		#trending Everyday Discrimination in Professional Sports
		Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them
			Ethnocentrism
			In‐Group Bias 
			Out‐Group Homogeneity 
			Blaming the Victim
			Justifying Feelings of Entitlement and Superiority
		Realistic Conflict Theory
	Reducing Prejudice
		The Contact Hypothesis
			Where Contact Can go Wrong
		Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Classroom
			Why Does Jigsaw Work?
			Try It! Jigsaw‐Type Group Study
			The Gradual Spread of Cooperative and Interdependent Learning
	Summary
	Test Yourself
Social Psychology in Action 1: Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future
	Applied Research in Social Psychology
		Capitalizing on the Experimental Method
			Assessing the Effectiveness of Interventions
			Potential Risks of Social Interventions
		Social Psychology to the Rescue
	Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future
		Conveying and Changing Social Norms
		Try It! Reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms
		Keeping Track of Consumption
		Introducing a Little Competitiveness
		Inducing Hypocrisy
		Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes
	Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle
		What Makes People Happy?
			Satisfying Relationships
			Flow: Becoming Engaged in Something you Enjoy 
			Accumulate Experiences, Not Things
			Helping Others
		Try It! Applying the Research to Your Own Life
		Do People Know What Makes Them Happy?
	Summary
	Test Yourself
Social Psychology in Action 2: Social Psychology and Health
	Stress and Human Health
		Resilience
		Effects of Negative Life Events
			Limits of Stress Inventories
		Try It! The College Life Stress Inventory
		Perceived Stress and Health
		Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control
			Increasing Perceived Control in Nursing Homes 
			Disease, Control, and Well‐Being
	Coping with Stress
		Gender Differences in Coping with Stress
		Social Support: Getting Help from Others
		Try It! Social Support
		Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events
	Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior
	Summary
	Test Yourself
Social Psychology in Action 3: Social Psychology and the Law
	Eyewitness Testimony
		Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong?
			Encoding
			Storage
			Retrieval
		Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken
			Responding Quickly
			Post‐Identification Feedback
		Try It! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony
		The Recovered Memory Debate
	Juries: Group Processes in Action
		How Jurors Process Information during the Trial
		Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem?
		Deliberations in the Jury Room
	Summary
	Test Yourself
Glossary
References
Credits
Name Index
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Subject Index
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