Smart Nanodevices for Point-of-Care Applications

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
About the Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Antimicrobial Applications of Nanodevices Prepared from Metallic Nanoparticles and Their Role in Controlling Infectious Diseases
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Different Types of Metal Nanoparticles
		1.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles
		1.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles
		1.2.3 Zinc Nanoparticles
		1.2.4 Selenium Nanoparticles
		1.2.5 Copper Nanoparticles
	1.3 Antimicrobial Activity of Metallic Nanoparticles
		1.3.1 Gold Nanoparticles
		1.3.2 Silver Nanoparticles
		1.3.3 Selenium Nanoparticles
		1.3.4 Zinc Nanoparticles
		1.3.5 Copper Nanoparticles
	1.4 Metallic Nanoparticles and Their Role in Controlling Infectious Pathogens
	1.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2 Asthma Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathophysiology and Management in the Current Scenario
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Epidemiology of Asthma
	2.3 Etiology and Risk Factors of Asthma
	2.4 Pathophysiology of Asthma
		2.4.1 Diagnosis of Asthma
		2.4.2 Current Treatments Available for Asthma
			2.4.2.1 First-Line Allopathic Treatments
			2.4.2.2 Additional Allopathic and Surgical Therapies
	2.5 Aromatherapy
	2.6 Ayurvedic Treatments
	2.7 Yogas and Aasnas
	2.8 Diet
	2.9 Recently Approved Monoclonal Antibodies for Asthma Treatment
	2.10 Recent Research and Novel Treatments
	2.11 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3 Recent Trends in Evaluating the Mechanistic Aspects of Alzheimer’s Disease and Its Diagnosis with Smart Devices
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Epidemiology
	3.3 Biomarkers
		3.3.1 Nonspecific Biomarkers
		3.3.2 Specific Biomarkers
	3.4 Digital Biomarkers and Sensors
	3.5 Recent Marketed Technologies
	3.6 Data Collection
		3.6.1 Active Data Collection
		3.6.2 Passive Data Collection
		3.6.3 Concerns for the Collection of Data
		3.6.4 Condition-Specific Metrics
			3.6.4.1 Cameras
			3.6.4.2 Accelerometer/Gyrometer
			3.6.4.3 Global Positioning System (GPS)
			3.6.4.4 Microphones
			3.6.4.5 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
			3.6.4.6 Thermometers
			3.6.4.7 Electromyogram (EMG)
	3.7 Future Prospects and Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4 Eco-Friendly Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles for Smart Nanodevices in the Treatment of Diseases
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Nanotechnology
		4.2.1 Nanoparticles
			4.2.1.1 Metal Nanoparticles
			4.2.1.2 Different Types of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
	4.3 Biomedical Applications
		4.3.1 Antitumor and Anticancer Activity
		4.3.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
		4.3.3 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity
		4.3.4 Wound Healing Activity
	4.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5 Raman SERS Nanodevices: The Next-Generation Multiplex Tools for Cancer Diagnostics
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Raman Spectroscopy
		5.1.2 SERS Technology
		5.1.3 SERS Enhancement Mechanism
	5.2 Design and Fabrication of SERS Labels
		5.2.1 Choice of Metal
		5.2.2 Hot Spots
		5.2.3 Raman Active Molecules
		5.2.4 Outer Protective Shell
		5.2.5 Bioconjugation
	5.3 SERS Labels in Cancer Diagnosis
		5.3.1 Cancer Screening
		5.3.2 Imaging Technique Based on SERS Detection
		5.3.3 Multifunctional Applications of SERS Labels
	5.4 Future Prospects
	References
Chapter 6 Smartphone-Based Nanodevices for Point-of-Care Diagnostics
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Smartphone-Based Optical Sensors
		6.2.1 Colorimetric Biosensors and Nanodevices
		6.2.2 Fluorescence-Based Nanodevices
		6.2.3 Smartphone-Based Imaging in Nanodevices
	6.3 Smartphone-Based Electrochemical Biosensors
		6.3.1 Amperometric Smartphone Devices
		6.3.2 Potentiometric Smartphone Devices
		6.3.3 Impedimetric Smartphone Devices
	6.4 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)-Based Nanodevices
	6.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 7 Current and Future Prospects in the Treatment of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorders
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Respiratory System
	7.3 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
		7.3.1 Causes of COPD
		7.3.2 Diagnosis of COPD
		7.3.3 Factors Affecting Drug Absorption in the Respiratory System
			7.3.3.1 Physiological Factors
			7.3.3.2 Physicochemical Factors
			7.3.3.3 Pharmaceutical Factors
		7.3.4 Treatment Available for COPD
	7.4 Devices Used for Drug Delivery
		7.4.1 Metered-Dose Inhalers (MDIs)
		7.4.2 Dry Powder Inhalers
		7.4.3 Soft Mist Inhalers
		7.4.4 Nebulizers
	7.5 Supplementary Therapies
	7.6 Surgical Therapies
	7.7 Other Therapies
		7.7.1 Exercise
		7.7.2 Diet
		7.7.3 Avoiding Pollution
	7.8 Aromatherapy
	7.9 Homeopathy Treatment for COPD
	7.10 Novel Approaches to Treat COPD
	7.11 Future Prospects for COPD
	7.12 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 8 Screening and Pharmacological Management of Neuropathic Pain
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Pathophysiology of Pain
	8.3 Types of Pain
		8.3.1 Psychogenic Pain
		8.3.2 Nociceptive Pain
		8.3.3 Neuropathic Pain
	8.4 Causes of Neuropathic Pain Conditions
		8.4.1 Diabetes
		8.4.2 HIV Infection
		8.4.3 Chemotherapy-Induced
		8.4.4 Herpes Infection
		8.4.5 Damage or Injury to Trigeminal Nerve
		8.4.6 Spinal Cord Injury
		8.4.7 Central Post-Stroke Pain
	8.5 Current Screening Tools for Neuropathic Pain
		8.5.1 Leeds Assessment of Neuropathic Symptoms and Signs (LANSS)
		8.5.2 Douleur Neuropathique Four Questions (DN4)
		8.5.3 ID-Pain
		8.5.4 Neuropathic Pain Scale (NPS)
		8.5.5 Pain Quality Assessment Scale (PQAS)
	8.6 Management of Neuropathic Pain
		8.6.1 Pharmacological Interventions
		8.6.2 Antidepressants
		8.6.3 Anticonvulsants
		8.6.4 Opioids
		8.6.5 Muscle Relaxants
		8.6.6 Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
		8.6.7 Corticosteroids
		8.6.8 Topical Analgesics
		8.6.9 Newer Pharmacological Interventions
		8.6.10 Combination Pharmacotherapy
	8.7 Neuromodulation Techniques
		8.7.1 Nerve Block Therapy
		8.7.2 Psychological Therapies
		8.7.3 Physical Therapy
	References
Chapter 9 Clinical Use of Innovative Nanomaterials in Dentistry
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Nanomaterial for Caries Arresting Agents
	9.3 Innovative Nanomaterials for Restoration of Dental Caries
		9.3.1 Bioactive Nanocomposites for Root Caries
		9.3.2 Nano-Modified GIC
	9.4 Nanomaterials in Minimal Invasive Dentistry for Management of Non-Pitted White Spot Lesions
		9.4.1 Nanomaterials for Enamel Remineralization
		9.4.2 Resin Infiltration Technique with Nano Enhancement
		9.4.3 Nano-Incorporated Tooth Bleaching Agents
	9.5 Nanomaterials for Esthetic Intervention
		9.5.1 Pitted Enamel Defects
		9.5.2 Fragment Reattachment
		9.5.3 Esthetic Buildup of Fractured Anterior Teeth
	9.6 Nano-Modified Caries Vaccine
	9.7 Nano-Enhanced Orthodontic Materials
		9.7.1 Nano-Coated Orthodontic Archwires
		9.7.2 Silver Nanoparticle-Coated Orthodontic Appliances
	9.8 Dental Nanorobots
		9.8.1 Nano Anesthesia
		9.8.2 Nanorobotic Dentrifices (Dentifrobots)
	9.9 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10 Graphene-Based Electrochemicals and Biosensors for Multifaceted Applications in Healthcare
	10.1 Introduction to Electrochemical Sensors and Their Significance in Healthcare
	10.2 Graphene: An Efficient Electrode Modifier for EC Sensing
	10.3 Functionalized Graphene as an EC Sensor
	10.4 Classification of Electrochemical and Biosensors Based on Transduction
	10.5 Graphene-Based EC Sensors for Dopamine
	10.6 Graphene-Based EC Biosensor
	10.7 Conclusions and Future Scope
	References
Chapter 11 Latest Trends in Bioimaging Using Quantum Dots
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Modification in Quantum Dots for Specific Labeling
		11.2.1 Application of Quantum Dots in Bioimaging
			11.2.1.1 QDs as a Nanoprobe for Labeling of Lipids
			11.2.1.2 QDs for Imaging of Neurons
			11.2.2.3 QDS for In Vitro Imaging
			11.2.2.4 QDS for In Vivo Imaging
	11.3 Heavy Metal–Free QDs for Ex Vivo Imaging
		11.3.1 Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs)
		11.3.2 Semiconductor Quantum Dots
		11.3.3 Near-Infrared Quantum Dots (NIR QDs)
		11.3.4 Fluorescent Jelly Quantum Dots
		11.3.5 PEG-Coated Biocompatible Quantum Dots
	11.4 QDs for Transfection
	11.5 Future Perspective or Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 12 Quantum Dots as a Versatile Tool for Bioimaging Applications
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Synthesis of QDs
	12.3 Optical Properties
	12.4 The Application of QDs to Cell Imaging
		12.4.1 Cell Staining
		12.4.2 Fluorescence Probe and Sensor
		12.4.3 Living Cell Tracking
	12.5 Quantum Dots for Multiplexed Bioimaging
	12.6 In Vitro and In Vivo Imaging Applications of Quantum Dots
	12.7 Challenges
	12.8 Cytotoxicity
	12.9 Future Prospects
	12.10 Conclusion
	Declaration of Competing Interest
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 13 Nanodevices for Drug Delivery Systems
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Nano-Drug Delivery Systems
		13.2.1 Liposomes
		13.2.2 Polymer Micellar Co-Delivery System
		13.2.3 Dendritic Macromolecules
		13.2.4 Inorganic Metallic/Non-Metallic Nanomaterials
		13.2.5 Composite Nanomaterials
	13.3 Drug Delivery Process
		13.3.1 Targeting Mechanism for Nano-Drug Delivery System
		13.3.2 Natural Product-Based Drug Delivery
		13.3.3 Biomedical Application of Nanoparticles for Diagnosis and Treatment
	13.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14 Nanodevices for the Detection of Cancer Cells
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Application of Nanodevices for Recognition of Cancer Cells
		14.2.1 Aptamer-Conjugated Nanomaterials for Specific Cell Recognition
		14.2.2 Nanotechnology in Cancer Diagnosis
		14.2.3 Tools Based on Nanotechnology to Be Used in Cancer Diagnosis
			14.2.3.1 Near-Infrared (NIR) Quantum Dots
			14.2.3.2 Nanoshells
			14.2.3.3 Colloidal Gold Nanoparticles
		14.2.4 Recognition of Circulating Tumor Cells
		14.2.5 Detection through Cell Surface Protein Recognition
		14.2.6 Detection Based on mRNA
		14.2.7 Nanotechnology for In Vivo Imaging
			14.2.7.1 Passive Targeting
			14.2.7.2 Active Targeting
	14.3 Application of Nanodevices in Delivery of Anticancer Drugs
	14.4 Nanoparticle-Based Drug Formulations
	14.5 Characteristics of Nanoparticle Drug Formulations
		14.5.1 Size of Particle
		14.5.2 Surface Properties
		14.5.3 Drug Loading and Release
		14.5.4 Passive and Active Targeting
		14.5.5 Targeted Drug Delivery
	14.6 Application of Nanoparticle Technology
		14.6.1 Nanoparticles: Particles Having Unique Properties to Be Considered as Delivery Vehicles
	14.7 Types of Nanoparticle Carriers
		14.7.1 Liposomes
		14.7.2 Bionanocapsules
		14.7.3 Gold Nanoparticles
		14.7.4 Polymeric Nanoparticles
		14.7.5 Chitosan Nanoparticles
		14.7.6 PLGA Nanoparticles
		14.7.7 Cyclodextrin Nanoparticles
		14.7.8 Polymeric Micelles
		14.7.9 Dendrimers
		14.7.10 Inorganic Nanoparticles
	14.8 Therapeutic Application for Cancer Cells
	14.9 Conclusion
		14.9.1 Cancer Treatments Using Nanotechnology
	References
Chapter 15 Nanomaterial-Modified Pencil Graphite Electrode as a Multiplexed Low-Cost Point-of-Care Device
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Material Constituent and Quality
	15.3 Design and Characterization
	15.4 Inbuilt Attributes and Properties
	15.5 Application in Biomedical Platforms
		15.5.1 Usage/Applicability in Real-Life Scenarios
	15.6 Bottlenecks
	15.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 16 An Outbreak of Oxidative Stress in Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Sources of Free Radicals
		16.2.1 Mitochondria as a Site of Free Radical Generation
		16.2.2 Peroxisomes as a Site of Free Radical Generation
		16.2.3 Endoplasmic Reticulum as a Site of Free Radical Generation
	16.3 Hallmarks of AD
	16.4 Role of Cholesterol in AD
	16.5 Molecular Link of OS with Abeta-Induced Toxicity
	16.6 Proteins Involved in AD
	16.7 Lethal Consequences of AD
	16.8 Conclusion
	Credit Author’s Statement
	Declaration of Competing Interest
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 17 Applications of Nanotechnology and Nanodevices for the Early-Stage Detection of Cancer Cells
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 The Aim and Objective of This Chapter
	17.3 Application Areas of Nanodevices
		17.3.1 Role of Nanotechnology and Nanodevices in Cancer Detection
		17.3.2 Gold Nanoparticles
		17.3.3 Gold Nanoparticles in Photo-Thermal Therapy and Photo-Imaging
		17.3.4 Quantum Dots
		17.3.5 Quantum Dot Applications in Cancer Imaging and Cancer Detection
		17.3.6 Cellular Targeting and Imaging
		17.3.7 In Vivo Targeting and Imaging
		17.3.8 Nanowires
		17.3.9 Nanoshells
		17.3.10 Photo-Thermal Ablation Therapy
	17.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 18 Nanoparticles: The Promising Future of Advanced Diagnosis and Treatment of Neurological Disorders
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Neurological Disorders and Nanoparticles
		18.2.1 Polymeric Nanoparticle Technology (PNT)
		18.2.2 Magnetic Iron-Oxide Nanotechnology (MFN)
		18.2.3 Exosomes and Liposomes (E and L)
		18.2.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNP)
	18.3 Diagnostic Bio-Barcoding of Enzymes
		18.3.1 Fluorescent Labeling to Detect Cellular Abnormalities
		18.3.2 Biosensors to Detect Cognitive Decline and Neurotransmitters
		18.3.3 Colorimetric Method to Analyze Inflammatory Mediators
		18.3.4 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Method
		18.3.5 Biochips to Detect Changes in the Brain
	18.4 Applications of Nanotechnology in CNS Disorders
		18.4.1 Epilepsy
		18.4.2 Alzheimer’s Disease
		18.4.3 Parkinson’s Disease
		18.4.4 Huntington’s Disease
		18.4.5 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
	18.5 Nanoparticles in Detection of Neurological Cancers
		18.5.1 Detection of Extracellular Biomarkers of Cancer
		18.5.2 Proteins as Biomarkers
		18.5.3 Detection of Micro-RNA (miR) as a Biomarker
		18.5.4 Detection of Extracellular Vesicles (EV)
		18.5.5 Circulating DNA (ctDNA) as Biomarkers
	18.6 Detection of Cancer Cells in the Direct Method
		18.6.1 Detection of Circulating Cells
		18.6.2 Detection of Cells via Surface Protein Detection
		18.6.3 Detection by Targeting the Tumors by Imaging
		18.6.4 Passive Targeting
		18.6.5 Active Targeting
	18.7 Ongoing Clinical Trials
	18.8 Bioimaging
		18.8.1 Nanoparticles in Bioimaging
			18.8.1.1 Imaging Using Fluorescence
			18.8.1.2 Raman Scattering
			18.8.1.3 Imaging Using Persistent Luminescence
			18.8.1.4 Imaging Using Photoacoustics
	18.9 Tissue Engineering in Neurology with Nano-Scaffolds
	18.10 Neuro Knitting
	18.11 Future Prospects
		18.11.1 NEMS: Nanoelectromechanical Devices
		18.11.2 Artificial Intelligence in Nanotechnology
	18.12 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 19 Advances in Regenerative Medicine and Nano-Based Biomaterials
	19.1 Introduction to Regenerative Medicine
		19.1.1 Advantages of Regenerative Medicine
		19.1.2 Disadvantages
	19.2 Common Biomaterials Used in Regenerative Medicine
		19.2.1 Bioactive Ceramics
		19.2.2 Polymeric Biomaterials
		19.2.3 Composites
	19.3 Biomedical Applications of New Classes of Scaffolds
	19.4 Hydrogels as Tissue Engineering Scaffolds
	19.5 Cryogels as Tissue Engineering Scaffolds
	19.6 Application of Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine
		19.6.1 Bone Tissue
		19.6.2 Nervous Tissue
		19.6.3 Skeletal and Cardiac Muscles
		19.6.4 Inorganic RG
	19.7 Toxicity of Biomaterials
	19.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 20 Magnetic Nanocomposites and Their Biomedical Applications
	20.1 Introduction
		20.1.1 Introduction to Nanostructured Materials
		20.1.2 Morphology of Nanomaterials
		20.1.3 Classification of Nanomaterials
			20.1.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNT)
			20.1.3.2 Carbon Black
			20.1.3.3 Fullerenes
			20.1.3.4 Nanocomposites
			20.1.3.5 Nano-Polymers
			20.1.3.6 Nano-Ceramics
	20.2 Classification of Nanoparticles
		20.2.1 Engineered Nanoparticles
		20.2.2 Non-Engineered Nanoparticles
	20.3 Nanotechnology Applications
		20.3.1 Synthesis Methods of Nanomaterials
			20.3.1.1 Chemical Precipitation
			20.3.1.2 Surfactant and Capping Agent-Assisted Process
		20.3.2 Synthesis of Materials
			20.3.2.1 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Synthesis
			20.3.2.2 Sonochemical Process
			20.3.2.3 Co-Precipitation
			20.3.2.4 Sol-Gel
			20.3.2.5 Solid-State Reaction
	20.4 Magnetic Nanomaterials and Graphene-Based Composites
		20.4.1 Metal-Based Graphene Composites
		20.4.2 Fe2O3-Graphene Hybrids
	20.5 Fe3O4-Graphene Composites
		20.5.1 Fe3O4/G Aerogels
		20.5.2 Bicomponent Fe3O4/G Hybrids
		20.5.3 Multicomponent Fe3O4/G Hybrids
		20.5.4 Carbon Nanotube-Based Iron Composites
	20.6 Magnetic Nanoparticles and Their Medicinal Applications
		20.6.1 Magnetic Hyperthermia in Cancer Treatment
		20.6.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	20.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 21 Ultrathin Graphene Structure, Fabrication and Characterization for Clinical Diagnosis Applications
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Design and Synthesis of Graphene
		21.2.1 Experimental Details
			21.2.1.1 Top-Down Approach
			21.2.1.2 Bottom-Up Approaches
	21.3 Characterization of Graphene
		21.3.1 Spectroscopic Characterization
			21.3.1.1 X-Ray Photo Electron Spectroscopy (XPS)
			21.3.1.2 Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy
			21.3.1.3 Raman Spectroscopy
		21.3.2 Microscopic Characterization
			21.3.2.1 Optical Microscope (OM)
			21.3.2.2 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM)
			21.3.2.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
			21.3.2.4 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
	21.4 Graphene Materials for Clinical Diagnosis Applications
		21.4.1 Graphene Materials for Virus Diagnosis
		21.4.2 Graphene for Bacterial Diagnosis
		21.4.3 Graphene for Circulating Tumor Cell Detection
	21.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 22 3D-Printed Nanodevices of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Relevance
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Technologies Used for Fabrication
		22.2.1 Stereolithography (SLA)
		22.2.2 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
		22.2.3 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
		22.2.4 Pressure-Assisted Microsyringe Extrusion (PAM)
		22.2.5 Drop-on-Powder (DOP)
		22.2.6 Digital Light Processing (DLP)
	22.3 3D-Printed Drug Delivery Devices
	22.4 3D-Printed Medical Devices
	22.5 3D-Printed Biosensors and Diagnostic Devices
	22.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 23 Nanofluids: Basic Information on Preparation, Stability, and Applications
	23.1 Introduction
		23.1.1 Nanofluids
		23.1.2 Preparation of Nanofluids
			23.1.2.1 Two-Step Method
			23.1.2.2 One-Step Method
	23.2 Stability Evaluation of Nanofluids
		23.2.1 Sedimentation and Centrifugation Methods
		23.2.2 Zeta Potential Analysis
		23.2.3 Spectral Absorbency Analysis
	23.3 Ways to Enhance the Stability of Nanofluids
		23.3.1 Using of Surfactants in Nanofluids
	23.4 Advantages of Nanofluids
	23.5 Applications of Nanofluids
		23.5.1 Heat Transfer Intensification
			23.5.1.1 Electronic Applications
		23.5.2 Transportation
		23.5.3 Industrial Cooling Applications
		23.5.4 Heating Buildings and Reducing Pollution
		23.5.5 Space and Defense
			23.5.5.1 Nuclear Cooling Systems
		23.5.6 Energy Applications
			23.5.6.1 Energy Storage
			23.5.6.2 Solar Absorption
		23.5.7 Mechanical Applications
			23.5.7.1 Friction Reduction
			23.5.7.2 Magnetic Sealing
		23.5.8 Biomedical Applications
			23.5.8.1 Antibacterial Activity
			23.5.8.2 Nano-Drug Delivery
		23.5.9 Mass Transfer Enhancement
		23.5.10 Other Applications
			23.5.10.1 Intensify Micro-Reactors
			23.5.10.2 Nanofluids as Vehicular Brake F23luids
			23.5.10.3 Nanofluid-Based Microbial Fuel Cells
			23.5.10.4 Nanofluids with Unique Optical Properties
	23.6 Limitations of Nanofluids
		23.6.1 Lower Specific Heat
		23.6.2 Increased Pressure Drops and Pumping Power
		23.6.3 High Cost of Nanofluids
		23.6.4 Poor Long-Term Stability of Suspension
	23.7 Conclusion
	23.8 Future Scope
	References
Chapter 24 Recent Trends in Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Biomedical Applications
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Electrochemical Biosensor Detection Strategies
		24.2.1 Electrochemical Detection
			24.2.1.1 Potentiometric Detection
			24.2.1.2 Conductometric Detection
			24.2.1.3 Voltammetric Detection
			24.2.1.4 Impedimetric Detection
	24.3 Types of Nanostructured Materials
		24.3.1 Metal and Metal Oxide-Based Nanomaterials
		24.3.2 Carbon and Nitrogen-Doped Nanomaterials
		24.3.3 Conducting Polymer-Based Nanomaterials
	24.4 Nanostructure-Based Electrochemical Sensing
		24.4.1 Zero-Dimensional (0D) Nanomaterials
		24.4.2 One-Dimensional (1D) Nanomaterials
		24.4.3 Two-Dimensional (2D) Nanomaterials
		24.4.4 Three-Dimensional (3D) Nanomaterials
	24.5 Transducer and Bio-Recognition Unit Integration
	24.6 Challenges and Application of Electrochemical Biosensors
	24.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 25 Impact of Calcium Ions (Ca2+) and Their Signaling in Alzheimer’s and Other Neurological-Related Disorders
	25.1 Introduction
		25.1.1 Possible Linkage between Calcium and AD
		25.1.2 Calcium Homeostasis
		25.1.3 Plasma Membrane
		25.1.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum
		25.1.5 Nucleus
		25.1.6 Golgi Apparatus
	25.2 Mitochondria
		25.2.1 Vitality and Importance of Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uptake
		25.2.2 Different Proteins Differentially Involved in Mitochondrial [Ca2+] Uptake
			25.2.2.1 MCU
			25.2.2.2 MICU
			25.2.2.3 MICU2/3
			25.2.2.4 MCUR
			25.2.2.5 EMRE
			25.2.2.6 NCX
		25.2.3 Other Efflux Proteins
		25.2.4 ER-Mitochondria Connections
			25.2.4.1 Peroxisomes
	25.3 Correlation between Calcium and Castigatory Dysregulation with AD
	25.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	Conflict of Interest
	Ethics Statement
	References
Index