Silencing Citizens: How Criminal Groups Create Vacuums of Justice

Cover
Half-title page
Title page
Copyright page
Dedication
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Acknowledgments
Introduction
	Theory: Cycles of Silence
	Research Design
	Summary of the Results
	Contributions
	The Study in Perspective
	Plan of the Book
Part I Why Police–Citizen Cooperation Matters
	1 Study Motivation: Vacuums of Justice
		1.1 Vacuums of Justice
			1.1.1 Criminal Group Violence
			1.1.2 Criminal Group Impunity
		1.2 The Importance of Justice
			1.2.1 Why Justice Matters
			1.2.2 The State’s Responsibility
			1.2.3 Abolition as the Alternative?
		1.3 The Information Imperative
			1.3.1 The Police’s Reliance on Information
			1.3.2 Citizen Knowledge about Violence
			1.3.3 Constrained Cooperation
	2 Research Design and Definitions
		2.1 Generalizability at the Macro Level
			2.1.1 Beyond the North–South Divide
			2.1.2 Limits to Macro-Level Generalizability
		2.2 Generalizability at the Micro Level
			2.2.1 Surveys and Survey Experiments
			2.2.2 Interviews and Observation
			2.2.3 Limits to Micro-Level Generalizability
		2.3 Main Actors and Outcome
			2.3.1 Criminal Groups
			2.3.2 Police
			2.3.3 Citizens and Cooperation
Part II How Criminal Groups Prevent Cooperation
	3 Theory: Cycles of Silence
		3.1 Cycles of Silence Theory
			3.1.1 Retaliation Risk and Violence
			3.1.2 Norm Suppression
			3.1.3 Self-Reinforcing Cycles
			3.1.4 Hypotheses
		3.2 Citizen Support for Cooperation
			3.2.1 Legitimacy and Cooperation Support
			3.2.2 The Question of Criminal Group Legitimacy
		3.3 Criminal Group Legitimization Efforts
			3.3.1 Socially Embedded?
			3.3.2 Justice and Security Providers?
			3.3.3 Economic Benefactors?
	4 Evidence: Silencing Citizens in Baltimore
		4.1 Background: “The Greatest City in America”
			4.1.1 Baltimore’s Drug Crews
			4.1.2 Exposure to Drug Crew Violence
			4.1.3 Theoretical Expectations
		4.2 Evidence: Baltimore’s Cycles of Silence
			4.2.1 Retaliation Risk and Violence
			4.2.2 Risk Perceptions and Cooperation
			4.2.3 Norm Suppression
			4.2.4 Information Loss from Suppression
		4.3 Scope Condition: Drug Crew Illegitimacy
			4.3.1 “No Snitching”: Myth versus Reality
			4.3.2 Why Drug Crews Lack Legitimacy
	5 Evidence: Silencing Citizens in Lagos
		5.1 Background: “Africa’s Model Mega City”
			5.1.1 Lagos’s Area Boys
			5.1.2 Exposure to Area Boy Violence
			5.1.3 Theoretical Expectations
		5.2 Evidence: Lagos’s Cycles of Silence
			5.2.1 Retaliation Risk and Violence
			5.2.2 Risk Perceptions and Cooperation
			5.2.3 Norm Suppression
			5.2.4 Information Loss from Suppression
		5.3 Scope Condition: Area Boy Illegitimacy
			5.3.1 Limited Social Embeddedness
			5.3.2 Unreliable Justice and Security Providers
			5.3.3 Area Boy Extortion
Part III Interventions for Promoting Cooperation
	6 Theory: Reversing the Cycles
		6.1 Cooperation Interventions
			6.1.1 Cooperator Anonymity
			6.1.2 Norm Awareness
			6.1.3 Exposure to In-Group Police
		6.2 Cooperation Despite Distrust?
			6.2.1 Police Legitimacy
			6.2.2 The Least Bad Provider
			6.2.3 The Vigilante Option
		6.3 Ethics of Encouraging Cooperation
			6.3.1 The Dilemma of Cooperation Interventions
			6.3.2 Principles of Intervention
	7 Evidence: Quiet Cooperation in Baltimore
		7.1 Background: Policing in Baltimore
			7.1.1 “The Streets Talk”
			7.1.2 Existing Efforts to Promote Cooperation
			7.1.3 Reversing Cycles of Silence
		7.2 Method: Experimental News Reports
			7.2.1 Experimental Vignette
			7.2.2 Measurement and Analysis
		7.3 Evidence: Interventions in Baltimore
			7.3.1 Cooperator Anonymity
			7.3.2 Norm Awareness
			7.3.3 In-Group Police Exposure
		7.4 Scope Condition: Cooperation Despite Distrust
			7.4.1 Drivers of Distrust
			7.4.2 BPD as the Least Bad Provider
	8 Evidence: Quiet Cooperation in Lagos
		8.1 Background: Policing in Lagos
			8.1.1 “The Police Are Not Spirits”
			8.1.2 Existing Efforts to Promote Cooperation
			8.1.3 Reversing Cycles of Silence
		8.2 Method: Virtual Reality Experiment
			8.2.1 Experimental Vignette
			8.2.2 Measurement and Analysis
		8.3 Evidence: Interventions in Lagos
			8.3.1 Cooperator Anonymity
			8.3.2 Norm Awareness
			8.3.3 In-Group Police Exposure
		8.4 Scope Condition: Cooperation Despite Distrust
			8.4.1 Drivers of Distrust
			8.4.2 NPF as the Least Bad Provider
	Conclusion
		DIFFERENT CITIES, SIMILAR DYNAMICS
		POLICY IMPLICATIONS
		RESEARCH EXTENSIONS
		GROWING VACUUMS OF JUSTICE?
References
Index