Signalized Intersections: Fundamentals to Advanced Systems

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Intersection Control
	1.1 Relation Between Two Roads
	1.2 Interchanges
		1.2.1 Diamond Interchange
			Advantages
			Disadvantages
			Advantages
			Disadvantages
		1.2.2 Cloverleaf Interchange
			Advantages
			Disadvantages
		1.2.3 Trumpet Interchange
			Advantages
			Disadvantages
		1.2.4 Directional Interchange
			Advantages
			Disadvantages
	1.3 Intersections
	1.4 Intersection Control
		1.4.1 Level I: Basic Rules
		1.4.2 Level II: Sign Control
			YIELD Sign Applications
			STOP Sign Applications
			Multi-way Stop Applications
		1.4.3 Level III: Signalization
		1.4.4 Level IV: Connected Vehicle Technology?
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	Reference
Chapter 2: Warrants of Traffic Signals
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 Overview of Traffic Signal Warrants
		2.1.2 Preparing for Need Studies
	2.2 Warrant 1: Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume
	2.3 Warrant 2: Four-Hour Vehicular Volume
	2.4 Warrant 3: Peak Hour
	2.5 Warrant 4: Pedestrian Volume
	2.6 Warrant 5: School Crossing
	2.7 Warrant 6: Coordinated Signal System
	2.8 Warrant 7: Crash Experience
	2.9 Warrant 8: Roadway Network
	2.10 Warrant 9: Intersection Near a Grade Crossing
	End-of-Chapter Problems
Chapter 3: Signal Phasing
	3.1 Phase Configurations
		3.1.1 Two-Phase Operation
		3.1.2 Three-Phase Operation
			Leading Left-Turn
			Leading Dual Left-Turn
			Lagging Left-Turn
			Split Phasing
		3.1.3 Four-Phase Operation
		3.1.4 More Phase Configurations
	3.2 Yellow Trap
		3.2.1 The Nature of the Problem
		3.2.2 Solutions to the Problem
			Inefficient Quick Fix
			Dallas Phasing
			Arlington Phasing
			Flashing Yellow Arrow
	3.3 Considerations in Signal Phasing
		3.3.1 General Principles of Phasing
		3.3.2 Numbering of Phases
		3.3.3 Ring and Barrier Diagram
		3.3.4 Pedestrian Phasing
	End-of-Chapter Problems
Chapter 4: Left Turns
	4.1 Types of Left-Turn Phases
		4.1.1 Permissive Only Mode
		4.1.2 Protected Only Mode
		4.1.3 Protected-Permissive Mode
	4.2 Left Turn Phasing
		4.2.1 Permissive Left-Turn
		4.2.2 Criteria to Justify Protected Left-Turn
		4.2.3 Guideline of Left-Turn Phasing
	4.3 Left-Turn Phasing Examples
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	References
Chapter 5: Pre-timed Signal Timing
	5.1 Types of Signalization
		5.1.1 Signalization According to Proximity of Signals Nearby
		5.1.2 Signalization According to Controller
		5.1.3 Combinations of Intersection Signalization
	5.2 Definition and Terminology
	5.3 Effective Green Time
	5.4 Relationship Between Indication Times and Effective Times
	5.5 Cycle Length
		5.5.1 Sum of Critical Lane Group Volumes
		5.5.2 Minimum Cycle Length
		5.5.3 More Realistic Cycle Lengths
			Practical Cycle Length
			Desirable Cycle Length
			Optimal Cycle Length
	5.6 Phase Splits
	5.7 Pedestrian Crossing Time
	Appendix 1
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	References
Chapter 6: Queuing at Intersections
	6.1 Arrival/Departure Processes at an Intersection Approach
		6.1.1 Uniform Arrival Process
		6.1.2 Time-Varying Arrival Process
		6.1.3 Poisson Arrival Process
		6.1.4 General Arrival Process
		6.1.5 Departure Processes
	6.2 Basics of Queuing Theory
		6.2.1 The First Section: Arrival Process
		6.2.2 The Second Section: Departure Process/Service Time Distribution
		6.2.3 The Third Section: Number of Servers
		6.2.4 The Fourth Section: Queuing Discipline
		6.2.5 Queuing System Example: D/D/1
		6.2.6 Queuing System Example: M/D/1
		6.2.7 Queuing System Example: M/M/1
	6.3 Queuing at Signalized Intersections
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	References
Chapter 7: Level of Service of Signalized Intersections
	7.1 LOS Criteria for Signalized Intersections
	7.2 Determining Control Delay
		7.2.1 Estimation of Control Delay
		7.2.2 Field Measurement of Control Delay
	7.3 LOS for Signalized Intersections: HCM
		7.3.1 Input Data
			Geometric Conditions
			Traffic Conditions
			Signalization Conditions
		7.3.2 Lane Grouping
		7.3.3 Determining Flow Rate
		7.3.4 Determining Saturation Flow Rate
		7.3.5 Determining Capacity and v/c Ratio
		7.3.6 Determining Delay
			Uniform Delay, d1
			Progression Adjustment Factor, PF
			Incremental Delay, d2
			Initial Queue Delay, d3
		7.3.7 Aggregated Delay Estimates
		7.3.8 Determining LOS
		7.3.9 Limitation of HCM Methodology
	7.4 LOS for Signalized Intersections: Empirical
		7.4.1 Before Field Measurement
		7.4.2 Field Data Collection
		7.4.3 Office Data Processing
	Appendix 1
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	References
Chapter 8: Controllers and Detectors
	8.1 Feedback in Traffic Signal System
	8.2 Architecture of Controller Cabinet
	8.3 Controllers
		8.3.1 Electromechanical Controllers
		8.3.2 Microprocessor-Based Controllers
		8.3.3 Controllers with Different Capabilities
		8.3.4 NEMA Standards
		8.3.5 Type 170 Standard
		8.3.6 ATC Family of Standards
		8.3.7 Controller Configurations
			Signal Timing Plans
			Detection Memory
			Vehicle Recalls
	8.4 Sensors
		8.4.1 Inductive Loop Detection System
			How the System Works
			Detector Settings
			Loop Design
		8.4.2 Video-Based Detection System
	8.5 Conflict Monitors
		8.5.1 The Functions of Conflict Monitor
		8.5.2 Removable Programing Card
	8.6 Other Components
		8.6.1 Load Switches
		8.6.2 Flashers
		8.6.3 The Cabinet
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	Reference
Chapter 9: Actuated Control
	9.1 Semi-Actuated Control
	9.2 Fully-Actuated Control
	9.3 Basic Timing Parameters in Actuated Control
		9.3.1 Minimum GREEN
		9.3.2 Passage Time
		9.3.3 Maximum GREEN
		9.3.4 YELLOW Interval
		9.3.5 ALL RED Interval
		9.3.6 Cycle Length
	9.4 Functional Configuration of Actuated Control
		9.4.1 Phase Recalls
			No Recall
			Minimum Recall
			Maximum Recall
			Soft Recall
			Pedestrian Recall
		9.4.2 Memory Mode
			Locking Memory Mode
			Non-locking Memory Mode
		9.4.3 Red and Yellow Lock
	9.5 Timers of Actuated Control
		9.5.1 Minimum GREEN Timer
		9.5.2 Passage Timer
		9.5.3 Maximum GREEN
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	References
Chapter 10: Small-Area Detection
	10.1 Loop Design and Setback Distance
		10.1.1 Loop Design
		10.1.2 Loop Setback Distance
	10.2 Basic Actuated Controller
		10.2.1 Loop Setback and Timing of Basic Actuated Controller
		10.2.2 Calling Detector
		10.2.3 Semi-actuated Control
		10.2.4 Detection of Congested Traffic
		10.2.5 Region of Operation
	10.3 Variable-Initial Only Controller
	10.4 Volume-Density Controller
		10.4.1 Region of Operation
		10.4.2 Time Waiting-Gap Reduction
		10.4.3 Last Car Passage
	10.5 Multi-point Detection
		10.5.1 Queue Discharge System
		10.5.2 Green Extension System
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	Reference
Chapter 11: Large-Area Detection
	11.1 Large-Area Detectors
	11.2 Potential Advantages and Disadvantages
		11.2.1 Potential Advantages
		11.2.2 Potential Disadvantages
	11.3 Applications of Large-Area Detectors
		11.3.1 Application 1: Left-Turn Vehicles
			How Does It Work
			Timing Adjustment
			Permissive Left-Turn
			Delayed Call Detector
		11.3.2 Application 2: Small Vehicles
			Powerheads
			Multiple Inter-connected Small Loops
			Quadrupoles
		11.3.3 Application 3: Through and Right-Turn Vehicles
			Operation at Stop Line
			Right Turn on RED (RTOR)
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	Reference
Chapter 12: High-Speed Approaches
	12.1 Approach Speed and Intersection Control
		12.1.1 An Overview of Applications of Actuated Control
		12.1.2 Applications to Low-Speed Approaches
			Locking Detection Memory
				Semi-actuated Control
				Fully-Actuated Control
			Non-locking Detection Memory
				Left Turn, Through, and RTOR
				Small Vehicles
	12.2 Dilemma Zone Problem
		12.2.1 The Nature of the Problem
		12.2.2 Dilemma Zone Delineation
	12.3 Solutions to Dilemma Zone Problem
		12.3.1 Solutions Based on Locking Detection Memory
			Semi-actuated Control
			Fully-Actuated Control
				Basic Actuated Controller
				Variable Initial-Only Controller
				Volume-Density Controller
					Protecting Vehicles Against Dilemma Zone Under a Single Speed
					Protecting Vehicles Against Dilemma Zone Under Varying Speeds
		12.3.2 Solutions Based on Non-locking Detection Memory
			Large-Area Detector Alone
			Large-Area Detector in EC Mode + A Small-Area Detector
			Large-Area Detector in EC-DC Modes + Two Small-Area Detectors
				The Design
				How It Works
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	References
Chapter 13: Preemption and Priority
	13.1 Preemption vs. Priority
		13.1.1 Preemption Control
		13.1.2 Priority Control
		13.1.3 Similarities and Differences
	13.2 Emergency Vehicle Preemption
		13.2.1 Cost and Benefit
		13.2.2 Technology
			Light- and Infrared-Based System
			GPS/Radio-Based System
			Sound-Based System
		13.2.3 Preemption Sequence
	13.3 Railroad Preemption
		13.3.1 Fox River Grove Bus-Train Collision: A Case Study
	13.4 Preemption of Traffic Signals Near Railroad Crossings
		13.4.1 When to Use
		13.4.2 How It Works
		13.4.3 Preemption Sequence
		13.4.4 Design Elements
			Distance Between Traffic Signal and Railroad Crossing
			Warning Time
	13.5 Transit Signal Priority
		13.5.1 Passive Priority
		13.5.2 Active Priority
		13.5.3 Transit Signal Priority Strategies
			Do Nothing
			Early GREEN
			GREEN Extension
			Early RED
			Phase Insertion
			Phase Suppression
			Phase Rotation
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	References
Chapter 14: Traffic Signal Coordination
	14.1 Basics of Signal Coordination
		14.1.1 When to Use
		14.1.2 Time-Space Diagram
		14.1.3 Signal Coordination
	14.2 Types of Signal Coordination
		14.2.1 According to Traffic Flow to Be Enhanced
		14.2.2 According to Interconnection Among Intersections
		14.2.3 According to Control Type at Coordinated Intersections
	14.3 Coordination in Favor of Traffic in One Direction
		14.3.1 Determine Common Cycle Length and Phase Splits
		14.3.2 Construct Time-Space Diagram
		14.3.3 Find Bandwidth
		14.3.4 Determine Offsets
		14.3.5 Fine Tune and Finish Up the Remaining Cycles
		14.3.6 Compute Performance Measures
	14.4 Coordination in Favor of Traffic in Two Directions
		14.4.1 Non-uniform Block Spacing and Undetermined Cycle Length
		14.4.2 Nonuniform Block Spacing and Cycle Length Predetermined
		14.4.3 Uniform Block Spacing and Cycle Length Predetermined
		14.4.4 Uniform Block Spacing and Undetermined Cycle Length
		14.4.5 Left Turn Treatment
	14.5 Coordination Involving Intersections with Actuated Control
		14.5.1 Background Cycle
		14.5.2 Force-Off
			Fixed Force-Off
			Floating Force-Off
		14.5.3 Permissive Period and Yield Point
	14.6 Coordination in Favor of Traffic in a Network
		14.6.1 Condition of Coordinating a Closed Network
		14.6.2 Coordinating a Closed Network with the Condition Met
		14.6.3 Coordinating a Closed Network with the Condition Not Met
		14.6.4 Quarter Cycle Offset System for One-Way Grid
		14.6.5 Double Alternate System for Two-Way Grid
		14.6.6 Coordination in a Network Involving Multi-legged Intersections
		14.6.7 Terminology
	End-of-Chapter Problems
	References
Index