Shape Memory Composites Based on Polymers and Metals for 4D Printing: Processes, Applications and Challenges

Preface
Acknowledgement
Contents
Contributors
Abbreviations
1 Advances in 4D Printing of Shape-Memory Materials: Current Status and Developments
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 3D Printing
		1.2.1 Binder Jetting
		1.2.2 Material Jetting
		1.2.3 Direct Energy Deposition
		1.2.4 Powder Bed Fusion
		1.2.5 Light Photopolymerization
		1.2.6 Extrusion
		1.2.7 Sheet Lamination
	1.3 4D Printing
	1.4 Fundamentals of Shape-Memory Effect
		1.4.1 Mechanisms of Shape-Memory Alloys
		1.4.2 Mechanisms of Shape-Memory Polymers
	1.5 Development in Shape-Memory Material-Based 4D Printing
	1.6 Challenges in 4D Printing of Shape-Memory Materials
	1.7 Application and Future Prospective
	1.8 Book Chapter’s Outlook
	1.9 Conclusion
	References
2 Characterization Techniques for Shape-Memory Alloys
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 DSC Characterization
	2.3 Structural Characterization
	2.4 Thermal Cycling Tests
	2.5 ER Characterization
	2.6 TMA Characterization
	2.7 Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer (DMA)
	2.8 Electron Microscopy
	2.9 Magnetic Characterization
	2.10 Conclusion
	References
3 Nitinol-Based Shape-Memory Alloys
	3.1 General Background
	3.2 Ni–Ti Alloys’ Phase Diagram
	3.3 The Shape-Memory Effect in Nitinol (Ni–Ti Alloys)
	3.4 Ni–Ti Alloys Processed by Magnetron Sputtering
	3.5 Ni-Rich Ni–Ti Thin Films
	3.6 Ti–rich Ti–Ni Thin Films
	3.7 Influence of Various Processing Parameters Related to Magnetron Sputtering on Film Quality
	3.8 Surface Topography of Sputter-Deposited Films
	3.9 Micro-Actuator
	3.10 Conclusions
	References
4 Molecular Dynamics Simulations for Nanoscale Insight into the Phase Transformation and Deformation Behavior of Shape-Memory Materials
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 MD Simulations on SMMs
		4.2.1 Binary Ni–Ti SMAs
		4.2.2 Ni2MnGa SMAs
		4.2.3 Co–Ni–Al SMAs
		4.2.4 Cu-Based SMAs
		4.2.5 Fe-Based SMAs
		4.2.6 Shape-Memory Polymers
	4.3 Conclusion
	References
5 Influences of Powder Size (SMAs) Distribution Fe–Mn/625 Alloy Systematic Studies of 4D-Printing Conceivable Applications
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Materials and Methodology
	5.3 Results and Discussion
		5.3.1 Heat in Recovery Stress
		5.3.2 Cool During Recovery Stress
		5.3.3 Smart 4D-Printing Materials
	5.4 Conclusion
	References
6 Copper-Based Shape-Memory Alloy
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Copper-Based Shape-Memory Alloys
		6.2.1 Brief Applicability of Cu-Based SMAs Over NiTiNOL
		6.2.2 Cu–Zn System
		6.2.3 Cu–Al System
	6.3 Transition Temperature-Controlling Component
	6.4 Challenges and Perspectives
	References
7 Synthesis Techniques of Shape-Memory Polymer Composites
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Methodology and Experimental Results of Shape-Memory Polymer Composites (SMPCs)
		7.2.1 SMPC-Based Reinforcement Fillers
	7.3 SMPC-Based Carbon Nanotubes
	7.4 SMPC-Based Polyurethane Nanocomposites
		7.4.1 Poly (Ethylene Glycol)–poly(ε-Caprolactone)-Based Polyurethane (PECU) and Its Nanocomposites
	7.5 SMPC-Based Nanoclay
	7.6 Applications of SMPCs
	7.7 Conclusion
	References
8 Wet Synthesis Methods of Shape-Memory Polymer Composites
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 In Situ Polymerization
		8.2.1 Advantages
		8.2.2 Disadvantages
	8.3 Solution Mixing
		8.3.1 Advantages
		8.3.2 Disadvantages
	8.4 Melt Mixing
		8.4.1 Advantages
		8.4.2 Disadvantages
	8.5 Co-Precipitation Method
		8.5.1 Advantages
		8.5.2 Disadvantages
	8.6 Sol–Gel Method
		8.6.1 Advantages
		8.6.2 Disadvantages
	8.7 Electrospinning Method
		8.7.1 Advantages
		8.7.2 Disadvantages
	8.8 Applications
		8.8.1 Aerospace
		8.8.2 Biomedical Equipment
		8.8.3 Smart Textiles
		8.8.4 4D Printing
	8.9 Conclusions
	References
9 Recent Progress in Synthesis Methods of Shape-Memory Polymer Nanocomposites
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Basics of Shape-Memory Polymers (SMPs) and Shape-Memory Polymer Nanocomposites (SMPNCs)
		9.2.1 Basics of Shape-Memory Polymers (SMPs) and Working Principle
	9.3 Fabrication Strategies of Shape-Memory Polymer Nanocomposites (SMPNCs)
		9.3.1 Conventional Methods
		9.3.2 Electrospinning to Produce Nano- and Microfiber SMP Composites
		9.3.3 Additive Manufacturing or 3D Printing or Rapid Prototyping
	9.4 4D Printing and Other Advanced Methods
	9.5 SMP Composite Response to Stimuli
	9.6 Current Efforts and Future Directions
	9.7 Conclusions and Summary
	References
10 Effect of Nano and Hybrid Fillers on Shape-Memory Polymers Properties
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Shape-Changing Polymers
	10.2 Shape-Memory Effect (SME)
		10.2.1 One-Way SMPs
		10.2.2 Multi-shape SMPs
		10.2.3 Two-Way SMPs
		10.2.4 SMP Composites
	10.3 Synthesis
		10.3.1 SMPs
	10.4 Electro-Active SMPs
		10.4.1 SMP Packed by CNT
		10.4.2 SMP Filled Through the Electromagnetic Filler
		10.4.3 SMP Packed Through Ni Chain
	10.5 SMP Composites
		10.5.1 Carbon Black (CB)/SMP
		10.5.2 Carbon Nanofiber (CNF)/SMP
		10.5.3 Nano SiC/SMPs
		10.5.4 Self-Healing Composites
	10.6 Hybrid Composites
		10.6.1 Cellulose
		10.6.2 Crystalline Polymers
		10.6.3 Elastomers
		10.6.4 Multi-Fillers
		10.6.5 Patterned Composites
	10.7 Multi-Blocks
	10.8 Controlled Behavior of Composite Material (CBCM)
	10.9 Applications
		10.9.1 4D Printing
		10.9.2 Stents
		10.9.3 Vascular Repair Devices
		10.9.4 Aerospace Applications
		10.9.5 Industrial Applications
		10.9.6 Electronics
		10.9.7 Civil and Architectural Engineering
	10.10 Recent Progress and Prospects
	10.11 Conclusion
	References
11 Meso, Micro, and Nano Particulate Filled Shape-Memory Polymers
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Shape-Memory Effect in Shape-Memory Polymers
	11.3 Reinforcement of SMP
		11.3.1 Thermo-Mechanical Cycle
		11.3.2 Particle/Fiber Reinforcement
	11.4 Fillers
		11.4.1 Particle Size
		11.4.2 Surface Area and Surface Energy
		11.4.3 Particle Shape
	11.5 Types of Fillers
		11.5.1 Particulate Fillers
		11.5.2 Rubbery Fillers
		11.5.3 Fibrous Fillers
	11.6 Addition of Fillers
		11.6.1 Meso Particles in SMP
		11.6.2 Microparticles in SMP
		11.6.3 Nanoparticles in SMP
	11.7 Conclusion
	References
12 Fiber- and Fabric-Reinforced Shape-Memory Polymers
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Fiber Classification
		12.2.1 Natural Fiber
		12.2.2 Synthetic Fiber
	12.3 Method of Synthesis
		12.3.1 Electrospinning Method
		12.3.2 Microfluidic Method
	12.4 Fiber in Biomedicine
	12.5 Shape-Memory Polymers
	12.6 Reinforcements
		12.6.1 Carbon Nanotube
		12.6.2 Hydrogel
	12.7 Synthetic Procedure of SMPs
		12.7.1 Thermally Stimulated SMPs
		12.7.2 Light Stimulated SMPs
	12.8 Properties of SMPs
	12.9 The Importance of Nanotechnology in SMPs
	12.10 Application of SMPs
		12.10.1 Textile
		12.10.2 Garments
		12.10.3 Biomedical Application
	12.11 Conclusion
	References
13 Organic Shape-Memory Polymers and their Foams and Composites in Space
	13.1 Application of Organic Shape Memory Foams
	13.2 OSM Foams and Composites for Space
		13.2.1 Principles of SMP and SMPC Recovery
		13.2.2 Experimental Set-Up for Experiments in Microgravity
		13.2.3 In-Orbit Experiments
		13.2.4 Experimental Results in Microgravity
	13.3 Future Trends for 4D Printing
	13.4 Conclusion
	References
14 Combination of Shape-Memory Polymers and Metal Alloys
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Shape-Memory Polymers
		14.2.1 Molecular Origin of Shape-Memory Effect in Polymers
		14.2.2 Properties of Shape-Memory Polymers
		14.2.3 Mechanism of Thermally Induced SMPs
		14.2.4 Mechanism of Light-Induced SMPs
		14.2.5 Applications of Shape-Memory Polymers
	14.3 Shape-Memory Alloy
		14.3.1 Phase Transformation in Shape-Memory Alloys
		14.3.2 Shape-Memory Effect in Metal Alloys
		14.3.3 Types of Shape-Memory Alloys
		14.3.4 Properties of Shape-Memory Alloys
		14.3.5 Applications of Shape-Memory Alloy
	14.4 Review on Shape-Memory Alloy and Polymer Composites
	14.5 Conclusion
	References
15 Devices and Sensors Based on Additively Manufactured Shape-Memory of Hybrid Nanocomposites
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Materials and Methods
		15.2.1 Synthesis of Solid and Porous SMPs
	15.3 Experimental
		15.3.1 Charcterization
		15.3.2 Fabrication of 4Dprinted Y/P3BT Nanocomposites
		15.3.3 SEM Morphological Analysis
		15.3.4 Thermo Gravimetric Analysis
		15.3.5 XPS Analysis of Pure and Y-P3BT SMPs
		15.3.6 XRD- Spectroscopic Analysis
	15.4 Results and Discussions
		15.4.1 Density of CNT/SMP Nanocomposite Foams
		15.4.2 I-V Electrical Characterization of Y Doped Poly-3-Butyl Thiophene (5, 8, 15 Wt. % of Y2O3)
		15.4.3 Impedance Measurements
		15.4.4 Procedure for 4D Printing and 4D Optimization
	15.5 Conclusion
	References
16 Recent Developments on 4D Printings and Applications
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Steps in 4D Printing
		16.2.1 Choosing 3D Printer
		16.2.2 Smart Material Selection
		16.2.3 Stimuli Selection
		16.2.4 Determination of the Interaction Mechanism
		16.2.5 Mathematical Modeling
	16.3 3D Printing Versus 4D Printing
		16.3.1 Materials
		16.3.2 Material Size
		16.3.3 Methods of Manufacturing
	16.4 Materials Used in 4D Printing
	16.5 Multi Materials or Composites in 4D Printing
	16.6 4D Printing in Production
		16.6.1 Self-Repair
		16.6.2 Self-Assembly
		16.6.3 Multifunctionality
	16.7 Production of SMAs by 3D Printing
	16.8 Applications of 4D Printing
		16.8.1 4D Printing Applications in the Medical Field
		16.8.2 4D Bioprinting or the Utilization of 4D Printing in Tissue and Organ Recovery
		16.8.3 4D Printing for Pharmaceuticals
		16.8.4 Usage of 4D Printing for Applications in Space
		16.8.5 4D Printed Multi-stable Metamaterials
		16.8.6 Textiles and Fashion Ware Applications of 4D Printing
		16.8.7 Soft Robotics
		16.8.8 Electronics Application of 4D Printing
		16.8.9 4D Printing in the Military
		16.8.10 Furniture and House Appliances
		16.8.11 4D Printing of Shape-Shifting Devices
	16.9 Conclusion
	References
17 Modern Approach Towards Additive Manufacturing and 4D Printing: Emerging Industries, Challenges and Future Scope
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Fabrication Processes for Additive Manufacturing and 4D Printing
		17.2.1 Sheet Lamination Process (SLP)
		17.2.2 Binder Jet Process
		17.2.3 Powder Bed Fusion
		17.2.4 Sintering Type Powder Bed Fusion Process
	17.3 Methodology
	17.4 Literature Review
		17.4.1 Top Authors Working on Sustainable Additive Manufacturing
		17.4.2 Top Cited Articles in Sustainable Additive Manufacturing
		17.4.3 Top Countries Working on Sustainable Additive Manufacturing
		17.4.4 Institute-Wise Research Progress in Sustainable Additive Manufacturing
		17.4.5 Journal-Wise Distribution
		17.4.6 Top Keywords in Sustainable Additive Manufacturing
		17.4.7 Content Analysis Based on Different Research Areas in Sustainable Additive Manufacturing
	17.5 Studies on Environmental Perspectives in Sustainable Additive Manufacturing
		17.5.1 Energy Consumption-Related Studies
		17.5.2 Design Aspect-Related Studies
		17.5.3 Environmental Aspect-Related Studies
		17.5.4 Life Cycle Assessment-Related Studies
	17.6 Application Areas of Additive Manufacturing
		17.6.1 Aerospace Applications
		17.6.2 Medical Applications
		17.6.3 Architectural Applications
	17.7 Research Gaps and Future Scope
		17.7.1 Business Challenges for Additive Manufacturing Technology
		17.7.2 Challenges Related to the Technical Perspective
	17.8 Conclusion
	References
Correction to: Characterization Techniques for Shape-Memory Alloys
	Correction to:  Chapter 2 in: M. R. Maurya et al. (eds.), Shape Memory Composites Based on Polymers and Metals for 4D Printing, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94114-7_2