Sensory Science and Chronic Diseases: Clinical Implications and Disease Management

Introduction
Contents
Part I: Biology and Development
	1: Anatomy, Physiology, and Neurobiology of Olfaction, Gustation, and Chemesthesis
		1.1	 Introduction
			1.1.1	 Encoding Chemosensory Information
		1.2	 Anatomy and Physiology of Olfaction
			1.2.1	 Olfactory Anatomy
			1.2.2	 Olfactory Physiology
				1.2.2.1	 Olfactory Transduction
					Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP)
					Calcium-Activated Chloride Channels (CaCC)
					Sodium Calcium Ion Exchanger (NCX) and Ca2+ ATPase
					Inositol Triphosphate (IP3)
			1.2.3	 Neuroanatomy of Olfaction
				1.2.3.1	 Olfactory Pathways
		1.3	 Anatomy and Physiology of Gustation
			1.3.1	 Gustatory Anatomy
			1.3.2	 Gustatory Physiology
				1.3.2.1	 Gustatory Transduction
					Salt Taste Transduction
					Sour Taste Transduction
					Sweet Taste Transduction
					Bitter Taste Transduction
					Umami Taste Transduction
			1.3.3	 Neuroanatomy of Gustation
				1.3.3.1	 Gustatory Pathways
			1.3.4	 Neuroanatomy Integration
				1.3.4.1	 Flavor: Integrating Olfaction, Gustation, and Chemesthesis
		1.4	 Conclusion
		References
	2: Sweet Taste and Added Sugar Consumption in Infancy and Childhood
		2.1	 Introduction
			2.1.1	 History of Sugar
			2.1.2	 Dietary Guidance on Sugars in America
		2.2	 Development of the Taste System
		2.3	 Biology of Sweet Taste
		2.4	 Development of Sweet Taste
			2.4.1	 Infancy
				2.4.1.1	 Facial Reactivity
				2.4.1.2	 Intake
				2.4.1.3	 Suckling Patterns
				2.4.1.4	 Analgesic Properties
			2.4.2	 Children
				2.4.2.1	 Intake
				2.4.2.2	 Psychophysical Tasks: Sweet Taste Preferences and Sensitivity
				2.4.2.3	 Analgesic Properties
		2.5	 Dietary Patterns and Guidance on Added Sugars for Young Children
		2.6	 Conclusions
			2.6.1	 Summary
			2.6.2	 Further Research
		References
Part II: Measurements of Taste and Smell
	3: Measurement of Olfaction: Screening and Assessment
		3.1	 Introduction
		3.2	 Why Measure Olfaction?
		3.3	 How to Measure Olfaction?
		3.4	 Olfactory Screening
		3.5	 Assessment
		3.6	 Odor Identification Testing
		3.7	 Odor Discrimination Testing
		3.8	 Odor Detection Threshold Testing
		3.9	 Odor Recognition/Memory
		3.10	 Retronasal Testing
		3.11	 Neurophysiological Testing
		3.12	 Conclusions
		References
	4: Measurement of Gustation: From Clinical to Population-Based Methods
		4.1	 Introduction
		4.2	 Taste Perception
		4.3	 Measuring Oral Taste Perception and Attention to Health Outcomes
		4.4	 Types of Psychophysical Procedures to Measuring Taste
			4.4.1	 Threshold
			4.4.2	 Taste Identification Tasks
			4.4.3	 Perceived Taste Intensity
		4.5	 Whole Mouth Versus Regional Taste
		4.6	 Perceived Taste Intensity of Perceptually Complex Stimuli
		4.7	 Avoiding Errors in Measuring Perceived Taste Intensity
			4.7.1	 Generalize the Scale
			4.7.2	 Select a Perceived Intensity Measure that Provide Ratio Properties
			4.7.3	 Standardized Instructions and Practice
			4.7.4	 Including Multiple Non-oral Sensory Standards in the Testing Protocol
			4.7.5	 Randomize the Stimuli
		4.8	 Taste Hedonics
		4.9	 Biomarkers of Taste
			4.9.1	 Fungiform Papillae
			4.9.2	 Electrophysiological Recordings
		4.10	 Taste Stimuli
		4.11	 Summary to the Types of Data Obtained by Different Psychophysical Test
			4.11.1	 Threshold
			4.11.2	 Perceived Intensity
			4.11.3	 Regional Taste Intensity
			4.11.4	 Taste Preference
		4.12	 Survey Reported Taste and Hedonics
			4.12.1	 Self-Reported Taste Function
			4.12.2	 Survey-Reported Liking Taste
			4.12.3	 Survey-Reported Liking—A Proxy of Dietary Behaviors to Connect Taste and Health
		4.13	 Screening for Taste Function
		4.14	 Population-Based Studies and the Opportunity for Assessment of Taste Function
		4.15	 Taste in Population-Based Studies
		4.16	 Conclusions
		References
Part III: Taste Smell, Chemesthesis in Clinical Conditions
	5: Integration of Taste, Smell, and Chemesthesis: Clinical Implications
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 Anatomical Sites of Chemosensory Integration
		5.3	 Role of Localization
		5.4	 Associative Learning
		5.5	 Role of Chemosensory Integration in Food Choice and Dietary Outcomes
		5.6	 Chemosensory Loss: Causes and Implications
		5.7	 Conclusion
		References
	6: Taste and Smell in Weight Loss Surgery
		6.1	 Introduction
		6.2	 Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery
		6.3	 Evidence of a Change in Food Preferences Following Metabolic Surgeries
		6.4	 Evidence of a Change in Taste Function Following Metabolic Surgeries
		6.5	 Evidence of a Change in Smell Function Following Metabolic Surgeries
		6.6	 Evidence of a Change in the Hedonic Component of Flavor Perception Following Metabolic Surgeries
		6.7	 Evidence of Potential Mechanisms Underlying Changes in the Hedonic Component of Flavor Perception Following Metabolic Surgeries
		6.8	 Conclusions
		References
	7: Olfactory Impairment and Neurodegenerative Disorders
		7.1	 Introduction
		7.2	 Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
			7.2.1	 Olfactory Functional Testing in AD
			7.2.2	 Does Olfactory Impairment Associate with Other Measures of Alzheimer’s Pathology?
			7.2.3	 Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			7.2.4	 Functional Neuroimaging of Olfactory Regions and Processes
			7.2.5	 Model of Olfactory System Compromise in Preclinical AD
			7.2.6	 Emergence of Olfactory Functional Impairment in the Pathological Progression of AD
		7.3	 Parkinson’s Disease
			7.3.1	 Neural Correlates of Olfactory Function in Parkinson’s Disease
		7.4	 Lewy Body Disease
			7.4.1	 Testing for Olfactory Impairment
			7.4.2	 Sensitivity and Specificity
		7.5	 Conclusion
		References
	8: Taste and Smell Alterations and Substance Use Disorders
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 Taste and Smell Changes with Substance Use Disorders
			8.2.1	 Effect of Tobacco on Taste and Smell
			8.2.2	 Effect of Alcohol on Taste and Smell
			8.2.3	 Effect of Opiates on Taste and Smell
			8.2.4	 Effect of Cocaine on Taste and Smell
			8.2.5	 Effect of Marijuana on Taste and Smell
		8.3	 Neuroimaging: Taste and Smell in SUD
			8.3.1	 Taste and Smell Cue Reactivity
			8.3.2	 Neural Circuitry Underlying Cue Reactivity
				8.3.2.1	 Mesocorticolimbic Dopamine System
				8.3.2.2	 Salience Network (SN)
				8.3.2.3	 Central Executive Network (CEN)
				8.3.2.4	 Default Mode Network (DMN)
		8.4	 Conclusions
		References
	9: Loss of Taste and Smell Function in Cancer Patients
		9.1	 Introduction: Prevalence and Importance
			9.1.1	 Prevalence of Smell and Taste Loss
		9.2	 Distinct Methodologies, Study Designs, and Study Populations
			9.2.1	 Varying Taxonomy: Taste, Smell, and Flavor
			9.2.2	 Varying Assessment Methods
			9.2.3	 Study and Methodological Design
			9.2.4	 The Prevalence Varies across Clinical and Individual Characteristics
		9.3	 Impact on Treatment on Taste and Olfactory Cell Homeostasis
			9.3.1	 Cancer and Inflammation
			9.3.2	 Chemotherapy Treatment
			9.3.3	 Radiation Treatment
			9.3.4	 Other Cancer Treatments
		9.4	 Taste Loss and Cancer
			9.4.1	 Overview of the Findings
			9.4.2	 Other Oral Sensations
			9.4.3	 Non-traditional Testing
			9.4.4	 Recovery of Taste Loss
		9.5	 Smell Loss and Cancer
			9.5.1	 Overview of the Findings
			9.5.2	 Recovery of Smell Loss
		9.6	 Factors that Can Modulate Taste and Smell Function
			9.6.1	 Genetic and Biological Variations in Gustation and Olfaction Transduction Pathways
			9.6.2	 Oral Physiology, Saliva, and Microbiome
			9.6.3	 Gastrointestinal Symptoms
		9.7	 Altered Chemosensory Perception Negatively Impact Dietary Intake
		9.8	 Diagnosis, Support, and Treatment Options for Cancer Patients with Taste and Smell Alterations
			9.8.1	 Barriers and Opportunities for Examining Taste and Smell Alterations in Cancer Patients
			9.8.2	 Existing Evidence for the Management of Taste and Smell Symptoms
		9.9	 Conclusions and Clinical Implications
		References
	10: Oral Health and Chemosensory Problems: Clinical Implication and Disease Management
		10.1	 Introduction
		10.2	 Overview of Taste Anatomy
		10.3	 Taste, Burning Mouth, and Other Oral Sensory Phantoms
		10.4	 Taste and the Oral Cavity
			10.4.1	 Dry Mouth, Candidiasis (Yeast) Infection, and Taste
			10.4.2	 Oral Lichen Planus
			10.4.3	 Oral Contact Sensitivity
			10.4.4	 Geographic Tongue (Benign Migratory Glossitis)
			10.4.5	 Viral Infection
			10.4.6	 Post-Dental Nerve Injury
		10.5	 Diagnosis of Taste Change and Oral Sensory Phantoms
		10.6	 Treatment of Taste and Sensory Changes
		10.7	 Conclusions
		References
Part IV: New Areas and Implications of Taste and Smell
	11: Oral Health and Microbiome: Implications for Taste: State-of-the-Science on the Role of Oral Health and Emerging Science of the Microbiota and its Implications for Taste
		11.1	 Introduction
		11.2	 Oral Health and Taste Perception: A Two-Way Street?
			11.2.1	 Dental Caries and Taste Perception
			11.2.2	 Is there a Genetic Link between Caries and Taste Perception?
			11.2.3	 Periodontal Disease, Halitosis, and Taste Perception
			11.2.4	 Sjogren’s Syndrome and Altered Taste Perceptions
			11.2.5	 Burning Mouth Syndrome (BMS) and Associated Alterations in Taste Sensation
			11.2.6	 Head and Neck Cancer Therapy and Taste Perception
			11.2.7	 Aging and Associated Changes in Taste Perceptions
			11.2.8	 Dental Prosthesis and Taste Perceptions
			11.2.9	 Dental Treatment and Taste Sensations
			11.2.10 Effects of Behavioral Factors (Tobacco and Nicotine Use) on Taste Sensations
		11.3	 The Oral Microbiome: A Major Determinant of the Oral Health
			11.3.1	 The Tongue Microbiome
			11.3.2	 Bacteria Associated with Altered Taste (Fig. 11.2)
				11.3.2.1	 Total Taste Sensitivity
				11.3.2.2	 Salty and Sour
				11.3.2.3	 Bitter
				11.3.2.4	 Sweet
				11.3.2.5	 Lipid-Linoleic Acid
		11.4	 Interaction between Taste and Oral Microbiome: Potential Mechanisms
			11.4.1	 Metabolites
			11.4.2	 Influence of Oral Environment by Diet
		11.5	 Implications for Health and Future Directions
		References
	12: COVID-19-Associated Loss of Taste and Smell and the Implications for Sensory Nutrition
		12.1	 Overview
		12.2	 COVID-19 and Loss of Chemosensory Ability
		12.3	 COVID-19 and Chemosensory Recovery
		12.4	 Effects of Chemosensory Loss on Nutrition
		12.5	 Future Directions for Research
		12.6	 Conclusion and Take Home Message
		References