Security and Defence: Ethical and Legal Challenges in the Face of Current Conflicts

Foreword: Rule of Law. Looking for a Warrior Ethos
Introduction
Contents
Sciences and Technologies; Cyberworld Conflicts
Outer Space’s Legal Framework, Challenges, and Policies
	1 Foreword
	2 Legal Frameworks of Activities in Outer Space
	3 UN Space Agencies
	4 Space Exploration and Private Industry
		4.1 NASA Space Exploration
		4.2 Private Industry in Space
	5 Challenges of Privatization
	6 Defense, Militarization and Space
	7 The Atlantic Alliance’s Approach to Space. A New NATO’s Space Doctrine?
	8 The European Union and Outer Space; The European Union Space Program
	9 Final Remarks
	References
A New Arms Race in Space? Options for Arms Control in Outer Space
	1 Introduction
	2 Legacy of the Cold War: Dual-Use, Restraint and Space Debris
		2.1 What Are Space Weapons?
		2.2 Military Use in Outer Space
	3 New Anti-satellite Tests: Counterspace, Electronic Warfare and Missile Defence
	4 Threats and Space Doctrines: New Fighting Domains
	5 International Rules and Arms Control in the “Interest of All States”?
	References
Cyberspace, Artificial Intelligence, and the Domain of War. Ethical Challenges and the Guidelines Proposed by the Latin American Development Bank
	1 Introduction
	2 Wars Across the Time
	3 Cyber Security
	4 Actors of Cyberspace
	5 Strengthening Security Through the Ethical Use of Data
	6 Implementation
	7 The Case of Colombia
	8 First Guideline—Implementation
	9 Second Guideline—Data Governance
	10 Third Guideline—Human Resource
	11 Conclusions
	References
Cybersecurity in the Second Decade of the Twenty-First Century
	1 Introduction
	2 A Few Words About Cybersecurity
	3 The Second Decade of the Twenty-First Century
	4 Study Cases
		4.1 Stuxnet
		4.2 Wikileaks
		4.3 Anonymous
		4.4 Sony Pictures
		4.5 Black Energy
		4.6 Russiagate
		4.7 Equifax 2017
		4.8 Wannacry-NotPetya 2017
		4.9 Cambridge Analytica
		4.10 Solar Winds
	5 Conclusions
	References
Cybercompliance: A Legal but also Ethical Concept that Allows to Reduce the Current High Risks of Corporations
	1 Introduction. Cybercrime: A Brief Historical Review
	2 Modus Operandi and Trend Evolution in Cybercrime
	3 Cyber Objectives and Regulations
		3.1 Cyber Objectives
		3.2 Regulations
	4 Sequence of Conclusions
		4.1 Regulations, Too Many or Not Enough? Problems
		4.2 Internal Policies and Rules
		4.3 Cybercompliance. Legal Entity Liability. An Analysis Focused on Compliance in Cyberspace
	References
Criminal Law and the Risks Posed by Internet. An Examination of Spanish Criminal Law
	1 The Background
	2 The Response of Criminal Law
		2.1 The Advancement of Punitive Barriers: The Application of the Concept of Crimes of Abstract Danger
		2.2 The Reformulation of Certain Criminal Concepts
		2.3 The Creation of New Offences
	3 Transborder Issues; the Difficulties of Prosecution
		3.1 The Harmonisation of Legal Provisions
		3.2 Procedural Instruments
		3.3 Areas of Competence and International Cooperation Between Police and Legal Systems
	4 Conclusions
	References
Human Rights, Big Data and Artificial Intelligence: Elements of a Complex Algorithm
	1 Consequences of the Big Data and Artificial Intelligence in the Digital Society
	2 Human and Fundamental Digital Rights, Getting the Future Right
	3 Discussion
	References
The Challenge of Disinformation for National Security
	1 Introduction
	2 Disinformation in the Post-truth Era
	3 The Perpetrators: Disinformation Actors
	4 Disinformation Strategic Goals
	5 The Strategic Logic of Disinformation in International Relations
	6 How to Fight Disinformation Campaigns in Democratic Societies
	7 Conclusion
	References
Ethics and Law Facing Other Current Conflicts
Ethical Behaviour and Social Responsability from the Perspective of Modern Psychology
	1 Past Ideas—Social Psychology Experiments
		1.1 Asch Conformity Experiment
		1.2 Milgram Experiment
		1.3 Stanford Prison Experiment
		1.4 Summary—Hope for a Better World
	2 Times of Doubt
		2.1 XX Century—Process of Changing Values of Social Responsibility
	3 What Happened at the Beginning of 21st Century?
		3.1 Between Biological Determination and Individualistic Freedom
		3.2 Return to Humanism and Individualistic Development - Positive Psychology Framework
	4 What Can We Expect in the Future?
		4.1 What Are We Left with?
	5 Conclusions
	References
Conflict and Territory: A Legal and Metalegal Approach. The Case of Spain
	1 Introduction and Context
		1.1 Forms of Government and State
		1.2 The Genesis Towards the Modern State from a Continental Point of View
		1.3 The Common Good as Justification of the State
	2 Why Do Societies Increasingly Delegate More Powers to Peripheral Entities?
		2.1 On the Way to Organize Power and the State
		2.2 The Social Constructivism Typical of Current Constitutions
		2.3 Centrifugal Territorial Distribution of Power in the Current Political Architecture
		2.4 Personalism and Law
	3 The Crisis of the State?
	4 The Spanish Case
	5 Conclusions and Learned Lessons
	References
Ethical Considerations in the Area of Operations. The Use of Unmanned Military Systems and the Introduction of Artificial Intelligence on the Battlefield
	1 Introduction
	2 What Is an Autonomous System?
	3 Risk Versus Effectiveness
	4 The Legal Dimension
	5 Offensive Versus Defensive
	6 Heuristic Versus Self-learning
	7 Conclusions
	References
Challenges Facing the Response to the Covid 19 Pandemic. Individual Versus Global Responses. Ethical Issues
	1 Introduction
	2 The Public Response to the Pandemic
	3 Different Responses to the Pandemic: China, Italy and Spain, and USA
		3.1 China
		3.2 Italy and Spain
		3.3 USA
	4 Ethical Issues Regarding the Pandemic
	5 Conclusions
	References
Axiological, Economic and Legal Challenges for the Functioning of the Energy Union in the Context of Energy Security of the European Union
	1 Introduction
	2 The Evolution of the Concept of Energy Security Within the European Union—A Literature Overview
	3 The Change of the Perception of the Issue of Energy Security in the EU
	4 The Concept of the Energy Union of the EU Member States
	5 The execution of the Project of Energy Union—Main Challenges
	6 Conclusions
	References
Freedom of Speech in Times of Crisis: The Case of Spain During the COVID-19 Pandemic
	1 Introduction
	2 Freedom of Speech in International Law
		2.1 Freedom of Speech and the Right to Access Information
		2.2 Derogation from the Right to Free Speech
	3 Violations in Spain
		3.1 Physical Attack on Journalists
		3.2 Lack of Transparency and Hurdles in Accessing Information
		3.3 The Use of Penal Law to Combat Disinformation
	4 Structural Issues
		4.1 Freedom to Access Information not a Fundamental Right
		4.2 Excessive Limitations on Political Criticism
	5 Conclusions
	References
Media Securitization in the Migration Crisis in Spain 2020–2021: The Case of Canary Islands and Ceuta
	1 Introduction: Migration as a Media Securitization Issue
	2 The Migration-Security Nexus. A Theoretical Debate Without Empirical Evidence
	3 Method and Research Design
	4 Findings
	5 Discussion and Conclusion
	References
Index