Science, Technology and Innovation Ecosystem: An Indian and Global Perspective

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Architecture of Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) System
	Chapter 1: Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Policy Framework for Socio-economic Growth of the Nations
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Science, Technology and Innovation Policy
		1.3 Need for System Interconnectedness
			1.3.1 Motivation for System Interconnectedness
			1.3.2 General Barriers and Challenges in Implementing System Interconnectedness
		1.4 Global Framework for STI Policy
			1.4.1 Main Features of STIP Compass
		1.5 National STI Policy Framework
		1.6 Evidence-Based STI Policy Framework
			1.6.1 Observations
		References
	Chapter 2: Components and Policies of Science, Technology, and Innovation System
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Components of Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI)
			2.2.1 Knowledge
			2.2.2 Skills and Techniques
			2.2.3 Invention
			2.2.4 Better Understanding
			2.2.5 Policies
			2.2.6 Applications
		2.3 Implications of Science, Technology, and Innovation
			2.3.1 Technology in Energy Sector for Sustainable Development
			2.3.2 Role of Science, Technology, and Innovation in Agriculture
			2.3.3 Science, Technology, and Innovation for Sustainable Urbanisation
		2.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 3: A Comprehensive Study of the Governance of India’s Scientific, Technological, and Innovative Endeavors
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Evolution and Major Breakthrough of STI in India
			3.2.1 The Scientific Policy Resolution, 1958
			3.2.2 The Science and Technology Policy Statement, 1983
			3.2.3 The Science and Technology Policy, 2003
			3.2.4 The Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy, 2013
			3.2.5 Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy (STIP), 2020
		3.3 Stakeholders of STI Governance in India
			3.3.1 Organizations Providing Strategic Orientation to STI in India
			3.3.2 High-Level Strategic and Advisory Bodies
		3.4 Research- and Innovation-Related Initiatives in India
			3.4.1 Initiative for STI Strategy and Funding
			3.4.2 Support to Knowledge Exchange
		3.5 Challenges to Indian STI Governance
		3.6 STI Governance in Developed Countries (Innovation-Leading Countries)
			3.6.1 STI Governance in the United States
			3.6.2 STI Governance in Switzerland
			3.6.3 STI Governance in South Korea
		3.7 Suggestions to Improve STI Governance in India
		3.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4: Reinvigorating Science, Technology, and Innovation in the Country by Factoring Components of the Innovation System
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Components of Science, Technology, and Innovation Ecosystem
		4.3 STI Ecosystem: Component Analysis
			4.3.1 Component 1: Government Sector
				4.3.1.1 Ministry of Science and Technology
				4.3.1.2 Government’s Key Programmes Under Different Departments/Ministries for Stimulating Innovation in the Country
					Office of Principal Scientific Adviser, GoI
					Department of Science and Technology, GoI
					Department of Biotechnology, GoI
					Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Including the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, GoI
					Ministry of Earth Sciences (MOES), GoI
					Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, GoI
					Department of Atomic Energy, GoI
					Department of Space
					Defence Research and Development Organisation, GoI
					Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), GoI
					Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), GoI
					Others
				4.3.1.3 Government’s Different Schemes to Boost R&D in Industries
					DSIR Programmes
				4.3.1.4 International STI Engagements
				4.3.1.5 Legislative Infrastructure for STI in India
					Policies Executed in the Field of S&T to Date
			4.3.2 Component 2: Academia
				4.3.2.1 Academic System in India
				4.3.2.2 NIRF (National Institutional Ranking Framework)
				4.3.2.3 Atal Ranking of Institutions on Innovation Achievements
			4.3.3 Component 3: Industry
			4.3.4 Component 4: Intermediary System
				4.3.4.1 City-Based Science and Technology Cluster (Science and Technology Clusters, Office of Principal Scientific Adviser to the GoI n.d.)
				4.3.4.2 Incubators and Accelerators
				4.3.4.3 Research Parks/Knowledge Parks
				4.3.4.4 Technology Transfer Offices
				4.3.4.5 Others
			4.3.5 Component 5: Informal Sector
		References
	Chapter 5: A Gear from India’s and Shreds of Evidence from Brazil’s Governance STI Ecosystem: The Cutting-Edge Design for Frugal, Sustainable, and Trust Roadmap
		5.1 Introduction and Background
		5.2 Methodology
		5.3 Results and Analysis
			5.3.1 BRICS Standards Cherish
			5.3.2 India Landmark Science Profile
			5.3.3 India Technology Roadmap Profile
			5.3.4 Innovation Profile
			5.3.5 An Innovation Perspective from a Central Governance Institute in Brazil: A Nuclear Energy Research Institute and the University of São Paulo
		5.4 Conclusion
		Appendix
		References
Part II: Strengthening Innovation and Entrepreneurship Ecosystem
	Chapter 6: Technology Push, Demand Pull, Networks, and Public Policy: What Drives and Facilitates Innovation?
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 What Drives Innovation?
			6.2.1 Technology Push
			6.2.2 Demand Pull
		6.3 What Facilitates Innovation?
			6.3.1 External Networks
			6.3.2 Policy
		6.4 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 7: Governance of Public-Private Partnerships: What Works and What Does Not
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Government’s Role in Innovation
		7.3 Governance
		7.4 Interaction Between Tentative and Definitive Governance
			7.4.1 Actors in the Governance and Their Responsibilities
			7.4.2 Understanding Governance Actions
			7.4.3 Characterising Governance Modes
		7.5 Policy Instruments
			7.5.1 State-Funded Initiatives
			7.5.2 Tax Incentives
			7.5.3 Collaborative Models
			7.5.4 Technology Innovation Hubs/Centres
			7.5.5 Sector-Specific Interventions
		7.6 Conclusions
		References
Part III: Translational Research Ecosystem
	Chapter 8: Comparison of Management Practices in Translational Research in HEIs and Non-Educational Sectors
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Essential Background Information
			8.2.1 The Additional Variables in Translational Research
			8.2.2 Orientation of HEIs Between Exploratory and Translational Research
			8.2.3 Idea-Driven Versus Problem-Driven Translational Research
			8.2.4 Intellectual Property (IP) Rights
			8.2.5 Segregating Management Practices for Product and Process Inventions
			8.2.6 Commercial Versus Societal Translational Research
		8.3 A Peep into Translational Research Spectrum
			8.3.1 Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Scale
			8.3.2 T-Spectrum (Translational Science Spectrum) of the Healthcare Sector
			8.3.3 Tech-Start-up Progression Scale Defined by Atal Innovation Mission
			8.3.4 Progressive Value Addition Along the Translational Spectrum
			8.3.5 Respective Ranges of Spectrum Selected by HEIs and Non-HEIs
		8.4 Current Practices of Research in HEIs
			8.4.1 Planning Functions
			8.4.2 Organising Functions
			8.4.3 Staffing Functions
			8.4.4 Leading Functions
			8.4.5 Controlling Functions
		8.5 Management Practices in Translational Research in Non-HEI Sectors
			8.5.1 Planning Functions
			8.5.2 Organising Functions
				8.5.2.1 Inventory Management, Maintenance of Equipment and Resource Allocation
				8.5.2.2 Scaling Up from Lab to Factory
				8.5.2.3 Research Publications from the Non-HEI Sector
			8.5.3 Staffing Functions
			8.5.4 Leading Functions
			8.5.5 Controlling Functions
		8.6 Comparison Between Management Functions for Research in HEIs and Non-HEIs
		8.7 Recent Steps Taken in the Promotion of Translational Research in HEIs
			8.7.1 Shifting Funding Priorities
			8.7.2 Establishment of Translational Research Institutes
			8.7.3 Supporting Technology Transfer
		8.8 Industry-Academia Collaboration
		8.9 Discussion and Roadmap for Enhancing Translational Research in HEIs
		8.10 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: The Impact of 3D Bioprinting Innovation on IP Ecosystem and Patent Law: An Indian and US Perspective
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Indian Perspective
			9.2.1 Inventions Contrary to Morality: Section 3(b)
			9.2.2 A Mere Admixture: Section 3(e)
			9.2.3 Medicinal or Surgical Procedures: Section 3(i)
			9.2.4 Plants and Animals in Whole or Any Part Thereof: Section 3(j)
		9.3 US Perspective
			9.3.1 How the US Provisions Are Applicable to Bioprinting Innovations?
		9.4 Authors’ Recommendations
		9.5 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Intellectual Property Ecosystem Based on Case Studies or Data Analysis
	Chapter 10: Navigating the Legal Landscape of Intellectual Property Rights in India: Protection, Enforcement, and Innovation
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Patent Act, 1970
			10.2.1 Patent
			10.2.2 Conditions for Obtaining a Patent Protection
			10.2.3 Non-Patentable Matters
			10.2.4 Validity of Patent Protection
			10.2.5 Background
			10.2.6 Amendments
				10.2.6.1 First Phase of Amendment
			10.2.7 Current Position
		10.3 Copyright Act, 1957
			10.3.1 Copyright
			10.3.2 Classes of Copyrights
			10.3.3 Criteria for Copyright
			10.3.4 Non-Copyright Work
			10.3.5 Validity of Copyright
			10.3.6 Background
			10.3.7 Amendments in the Copyright Act
			10.3.8 Amendment in Copyright Rules
				10.3.8.1 Appellate Board
				10.3.8.2 Current Status
		10.4 Trade Secrets
			10.4.1 Trade Secret
			10.4.2 Criteria for Trade Secret
			10.4.3 Validity of Trade Secrets
			10.4.4 Background
			10.4.5 Judicial Rulings for the Protection of Trade Secrets in India
			10.4.6 Current Status
		10.5 Industrial Designs Act, 2000
			10.5.1 Industrial Designs
			10.5.2 Criteria for Industrial Design
			10.5.3 Non-Protectable Industrial Designs in India
			10.5.4 Validity of Industrial Designs
			10.5.5 Acts and Laws to Govern Industrial Designs in India
			10.5.6 Background
			10.5.7 Chronological Order of Amendments in “The Designs Act,” 2000
				10.5.7.1 The Design Rules (Amendment)
				10.5.7.2 Highlights of the Amendment
					Recognition for “Start-Ups\"
					E-Service of Documents
					Changes to Costs in Proceedings Before Controller
					Adoption of the Latest Locarno Classification System
					Current Status
		10.6 Trademark Act, 1999
			10.6.1 Trademark
			10.6.2 Conditions for Obtaining Trademark
			10.6.3 Types of Trademarks
			10.6.4 Designation of Trademark Symbols in India
				10.6.4.1 Validity of Trademark
				10.6.4.2 Background
				10.6.4.3 Amendments
			10.6.5 Current Status
		10.7 Geographical Indications Act, 1999
			10.7.1 Ownership of GI
			10.7.2 Classes of GI
			10.7.3 Non-Registerable GI
			10.7.4 Protection of GI
			10.7.5 Validity of GI
			10.7.6 Background
			10.7.7 Amendments
			10.7.8 Current Status
		10.8 Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layout Design Act, 2000
			10.8.1 Conditions for Registration of SICLD
			10.8.2 Prohibition of Registration of SICLD
			10.8.3 Validity of Registration of SICLD
			10.8.4 Assignment and Transmission of Registered Layout Design
			10.8.5 Background
			10.8.6 Amendments
			10.8.7 Appellate Board
			10.8.8 Current Position
		10.9 Plant Variety and Plant Breeders Rights Act, 2001
			10.9.1 Conditions for Registration of New Plant Variety
			10.9.2 Types of Plant Varieties Registered Under PVP&FR Act, 2001
			10.9.3 Plant Varieties that Cannot Be Registered in India
				10.9.3.1 Duration
			10.9.4 Background
			10.9.5 Rights Under the Act
			10.9.6 Farmers’ Rights
			10.9.7 Amendments and Current Position
		10.10 Traditional Knowledge and Biological Diversity Protection
			10.10.1 Role of Traditional Knowledge in Conserving Biodiversity
			10.10.2 Traditional Knowledge Digital Library
			10.10.3 Instances Where Traditional Knowledge Was Provided IPR Protection
		10.11 Biological Diversity Act, 2002
			10.11.1 Amendments
				10.11.1.1 Convention on Biodiversity
				10.11.1.2 Current Status
			10.11.2 Other Agreements and Treaties Signed by India at Global Level
		10.12 Summary
		References
	Chapter 11: Intellectual Property Framework in India and Enforcement Mechanisms
		11.1 IP Ecosystem in India
		11.2 Improvement of India’s IP Ecosystem Through Policy Interventions
			11.2.1 IP Filing Trends in India
			11.2.2 Infrastructural Upgrades at the IPO
			11.2.3 Policy Initiatives by the Government of India in the Area of IP
				11.2.3.1 National IPR Policy (2016)
				11.2.3.2 Cell for IPR Promotion and Management (CIPAM)
				11.2.3.3 Start-Up Intellectual Property (SIPP) Scheme (2016)
					Eligibility
						Documentary Evidence to Register as a Start-Up
						Benefits of Being Recognized as a Start-Up
				11.2.3.4 National Innovation and Start-up Policy
				11.2.3.5 Review of the IPR Regime in India by the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Commerce
		11.3 Indian Patent Law and the Delicate Balance Between Public and Private Interest
			11.3.1 Section 3: What Are Not Inventions
			11.3.2 Section 4
		11.4 Interplay of IP Laws and the Biological Diversity Act, 2022
		11.5 IP Enforcement Mechanisms in India
			11.5.1 Hierarchy of Courts (Civil and Criminal)
				11.5.1.1 The Supreme Court
				11.5.1.2 High Courts
				11.5.1.3 District and Sessions Court
			11.5.2 IP Infringement and Remedies
				11.5.2.1 Patents
					Infringement
					Exceptions to Infringement
				11.5.2.2 Designs
					Infringement (Referred to as “Piracy”)
				11.5.2.3 Trademarks
					Infringement
					Special Status for Well-Known Trademark
					Passing-Off
					Exceptions: What Is Not Infringement and Passing-Off
				11.5.2.4 Copyright
					Infringement
					Exceptions to Copyright Infringement
		11.6 Some Leading Court Decisions on IPR Enforcement in India
			11.6.1 Patents
				11.6.1.1 Raj Prakash v Mangat Ram Chaudhary [AIR 1978 Del 1] (Delhi High Court)
				11.6.1.2 Bishwanath Prasad Radhey Shyam v Hindustan Metal Industries [(1979) 2 SCC 511] (Supreme Court)
				11.6.1.3 Merck Sharp & Dohme Corporation & Anr. v Glenmark Pharmaceuticals Ltd [2015 (64) PTC 417 (Del)] (Delhi High Court)
				11.6.1.4 Novartis Ag v Union of India & Ors [AIR 2013, 1311] (Supreme Court)
				11.6.1.5 F. Hoffmann-LA Roche Ltd. and Anr. v Cipla Ltd. [2016 (65) PTC 1 (Del)] (Delhi High Court)
				11.6.1.6 Strix Ltd v Maharaja Appliances Ltd [MIPR 2010 (1) 0181] (Delhi High Court)
				11.6.1.7 Bayer Corporation v Union of India & Bayer Intellectual Property Gmbh & Anr. v Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd. [2017 (70) PTC 7 (Del)] (Delhi High Court)
				11.6.1.8 Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson v Xiaomi Technology & Ors. (CS(Comm) 434/2016) (Delhi High Court)
				11.6.1.9 Nuziveedu Seeds Ltd. & Ors. v Monsanto Technology LLC & Ors.
			11.6.2 Designs
				11.6.2.1 Bharat Glass Tube Ltd. v Gopal Glass Works Ltd. [2008 (37) PTC 1 (SC)] (Supreme Court)
				11.6.2.2 Mohan Lal, Proprietor of Mourya Industries v Sona Paint & Hardwares and Micolube India Limited v Rakesh Kumar Trading as Saurabh Industries & Ors. [2013 (55) PTC 61 (Del)] (Delhi High Court)
				11.6.2.3 Pentel Kabushiki Kaisha and Ors. v Arora Stationers and Ors. [CS (Comm.) No. 361/2017] (Order dated 08.01.2018, Delhi High Court)
			11.6.3 Trademarks
				11.6.3.1 Infringement
					P.K. Sen v Exxon Mobil Corporation [FAO (OS) 290/2016, Order dated 04.01.2017] (Delhi High Court)
					CISCO Technologies v Shrikanth [2005 (31) PTC 538] (Delhi High Court)
				11.6.3.2 Comparative Advertisement
					Dabur India Ltd v. M/S Colortek Meghalaya Pvt. Ltd. [2010 (44) PTC 254 (Del)] (Delhi High Court)
				11.6.3.3 Passing-Off
					N. R. Dongre v Whirlpool Corporation [(1996) 5 SCC 714] (Supreme Court)
						Brief Facts
					Toyota Jidosha Kabushiki Kaisha v M/s Prius Auto Industries Ltd. and Ors. [CA No. 5375-5377/2017] (Supreme Court)
				11.6.3.4 Criminal Enforcement
					State of UP v Ram Nath, Partner M/s Panna Lal Durga, Kanpur [AIR 1972 SC 232] (Supreme Court)
			11.6.4 Copyright
				11.6.4.1 RG Anand v Deluxe Films & Ors [1978 AIR 1613] (Supreme Court)
				11.6.4.2 Eastern Book Company & Ors v D.B. Modak & Anr [Appeal (civil) 6472 of 2004 (Supreme Court)
				11.6.4.3 Myspace Inc. v Super Cassettes Industries Ltd [FAO(OS) 540/2011] (Delhi High Court)
	Chapter 12: IP Ecosystems of Major Economies of the World
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Harmonization of IP Laws Through TRIPS Agreement
		12.3 IP Ecosystem in Advanced Economies
		12.4 IP Ecosystem in India
		12.5 Conclusions
		References
Part V: Advances in Science, Technology, and Innovation Ecosystem
	Chapter 13: Open Science and Science, Technology, and Innovation Ecosystem: Exploring from “Policies” to “Practices” Within India
		13.1 Crisis in Science, Technology and Innovation Ecosystem
		13.2 Defining Open Science and Its Genesis
			13.2.1 Genesis of Open Science
			13.2.2 Reemerging Discourse of Open Science
		13.3 Open Science Practices in India: From “Policy” to “Practice”
			13.3.1 Open Scientific Knowledge
				13.3.1.1 Open Access Policies and India
					DST-DBT Open-Access Policy 2014 (DST 2022)
					CSIR Open-Access Mandate 2011 (CSIR 2022)
					“ICAR Open-Access Policy” (ICAR 2022)
				13.3.1.2 Open Research Data and India
					National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy, 2012
					Open Data Policy for Publicly Funded Research in Draft STIP
				13.3.1.3 Open Educational Resources
				13.3.1.4 Open-Source Software and Hardware
			13.3.2 Open Research Infrastructure
			13.3.3 Citizen Science
		13.4 Beyond Access to Science
		13.5 Way Ahead
		References
	Chapter 14: Fostering Inclusive Development with Citizen Science and Geospatial Technologies
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Citizen Science and Geospatial Technologies
		14.3 Case Study: eBird
		14.4 Way Forward for Inclusive Development
		References
	Chapter 15: A Perspective on Emerging and Converging Technologies for Scientific Innovation Ecosystem Advancement
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 India’s Innovation System
		15.3 Emerging Technologies
			15.3.1 Emerging Technologies in Education
			15.3.2 Emerging Technology in Information Technology
			15.3.3 Emerging Technology Robotics
			15.3.4 Emerging Technology in Nanotechnology
			15.3.5 Emerging Technology in Biotechnology
			15.3.6 Emerging Technology in Artificial Intelligence
		15.4 Converging Technologies
		15.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 16: Science Communication: Communicating Science and Technology—Policies and Practices
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 SciComm Model Shift: From Deficit to Dialogue and Participation
		16.3 Models of SciComm
			16.3.1 Deficit Model
			16.3.2 Dialogue Model
			16.3.3 Participation Model: Citizen Science
		16.4 Public Understanding of Science
		16.5 SciComm: An Evolving Research Field
		16.6 SciComm: Policies and Practices in India
		16.7 Communicating S&T in a Changing Landscape: Digitalisation
		16.8 Role of Research Institutions in Communicating S&T
			16.8.1 Research Institutes
			16.8.2 Scientists/Researchers
			16.8.3 Policymakers
			16.8.4 Public
		16.9 Case Study
		16.10 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 17: Science Diplomacy in Semi-Peripheral Countries: Trajectories and Approaches from Argentina, Brazil, and India
		17.1 Introduction
			17.1.1 Science Diplomacy from Core to Periphery
		17.2 Semi-Peripheral Countries and Its Connections
			17.2.1 The Capitalist World-System and Its Relations with STI and SD
		17.3 Countries Trajectories: An Approach from Three Semi-Peripheral Countries—Argentina, Brazil, and India
			17.3.1 Argentina: A Full-of-Potential But Uncoordinated SD Actor
			17.3.2 Brazil: A Paradoxical SD Global Player
			17.3.3 India: A Global and Multilevel Actor in SD
		17.4 Discussion and Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 18: Significance of Strengthening STI Ecosystems for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Potential Contribution of STI to SDG Goals
			18.2.1 Agricultural Productivity and Food Security
			18.2.2 Healthcare
			18.2.3 Education
			18.2.4 Water
			18.2.5 Energy
			18.2.6 Industry
			18.2.7 Environment
			18.2.8 Habitat
		18.3 Challenges for Achieving SDGs
		References