Sarcopenia: Research and Clinical Implications (Practical Issues in Geriatrics)

Preface
Contents
1: Epidemiology of Sarcopenia
	1.1	 Introduction
	1.2	 Definitions
	1.3	 Prevalence of Sarcopenia
	1.4	 Risk Factors
	1.5	 The Health Economic Burden of Sarcopenia
	1.6	 Conclusion
	References
2: Definitions of Sarcopenia Across the World
	2.1	 Introduction
	2.2	 Sarcopenia: Different Definitions Across the World
	2.3	 EWGSOP1 vs. EWGSOP2: What Is Changed?
	2.4	 The Impact of Different Operational Definitions
	2.5	 Conclusion
	References
3: Consequences of Sarcopenia in Older People: The Epidemiological Evidence
	3.1	 Introduction
	3.2	 Sarcopenia as Risk Factor for Falls and Fractures
	3.3	 Sarcopenia as Risk Factor for Disability
	3.4	 Sarcopenia, Hospitalization, and Mortality
	3.5	 Sarcopenia as Risk Factor for Negative Outcomes in Surgery
	3.6	 Conclusions
	References
4: Emerging Markers for Sarcopenia
	4.1	 Introduction
	4.2	 Traditional Biomarkers of Sarcopenia
	4.3	 Inflammatory Biomarkers
	4.4	 Nutritional Biomarkers
	4.5	 Genetic Biomarkers
	4.6	 Hormones
	4.7	 Biomarkers of Oxidation
	4.8	 Conclusion
	References
5: Screening for Sarcopenia
	5.1	 Introduction
	5.2	 Part 1. Existing Screening Tools for Sarcopenia
		5.2.1	 Introduction
		5.2.2	 Summary of Existing Screening Tools
			5.2.2.1	 SARC-F Questionnaire
			5.2.2.2	 Calf Circumference
			5.2.2.3	 SARC-CalF
			5.2.2.4	 MSRA: Mini Sarcopenia Risk Assessment
			5.2.2.5	 Ishii Score
			5.2.2.6	 Equation of Yu
			5.2.2.7	 Screening Grid of Goodman
			5.2.2.8	 Chair Stand Test
			5.2.2.9	 Yubi-Wakka (Finger-Ring) Test
			5.2.2.10	 GripBMI
			5.2.2.11	 TRSS: Taiwan Risk Score for Sarcopenia
			5.2.2.12	 Red Flag Method
	5.3	 Part 2. Performance Comparison of the Screening Tools for Sarcopenia
		5.3.1	 Introduction
		5.3.2	 Head-to-Head Comparisons of the Performance of Multiple Sarcopenia Screening Tools
		5.3.3	 Performance Comparison of the SARC-F with Other Sarcopenia Screening Tools
		5.3.4	 Further Considerations Regarding the Performance of Screening Methods
	References
6: Radiological Evaluation of Muscle Mass
	6.1	 Introduction
	6.2	 US
	6.3	 CT
	6.4	 MRI
	6.5	 DXA
	6.6	 Conclusions
	References
7: Physical Performance and Muscle Strength Tests: Pros and Cons
	7.1	 Introduction
	7.2	 Muscle Strength
		7.2.1	 Upper Limb Muscle Strength
		7.2.2	 Lower Limb Muscle Strength
		7.2.3	 Muscle Strength Indexes
	7.3	 Physical Performance
		7.3.1	 Walking Capacity
			7.3.1.1	 The Short-Distance Walking Tests (4-m Distance, 6-m Distance, and 10-m Distance)
			7.3.1.2	 The Long-Distance Walking Tests (400-m Walk Test and 6-min Walk Test)
		7.3.2	 Lower Limbs Muscle Function
		7.3.3	 Balance
	7.4	 Global Functional Capacity
	7.5	 Conclusion
	References
8: Is Sarcopenia a Condition, a Disorder, a Disease, or a True Geriatric Syndrome?
	8.1	 Is Sarcopenia a “Clinical Condition”?
	8.2	 Is Sarcopenia a “Disorder”?
	8.3	 Is Sarcopenia a Disease?
	8.4	 Is Sarcopenia a “Syndrome” or a “Geriatric Syndrome”?
	8.5	 The Confirmation That Sarcopenia Must be Considered as a Geriatric Syndrome
		8.5.1	 High Prevalence of Sarcopenia
		8.5.2	 Shared Risk Factors
		8.5.3	 Multifactorial and Cross-Organ Components of Sarcopenia
		8.5.4	 Association with Another Morbidity
		8.5.5	 Poor Outcomes of Sarcopenia
	8.6	 Conclusion
	References
9: Sarcopenia in Other Settings: Primary Care, Cardiovascular Disease, Surgery
	9.1	 Introduction
	9.2	 Sarcopenia in Primary Care
		9.2.1	 Screening and Evaluation
			9.2.1.1	 The Red Flag Method
			9.2.1.2	 The SARC-F Questionnaire
		9.2.2	 Management of Sarcopenia in Primary Care
			9.2.2.1	 Physical Activity
			9.2.2.2	 Nutrition
	9.3	 Sarcopenia and Cardiovascular Diseases
		9.3.1	 Heart Failure
		9.3.2	 Coronary Artery Disease
		9.3.3	 Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement
		9.3.4	 Atrial Fibrillation
		9.3.5	 Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)
	9.4	 Sarcopenia and Surgery
		9.4.1	 Preoperative Assessment of Sarcopenia
		9.4.2	 Prehabilitation and Sarcopenia
		9.4.3	 Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS)
	9.5	 Conclusion
	References
10: Acute Sarcopenia: Definition and Actual Issues
	10.1	 Acute Sarcopenia: The Last Remaining Acute Organ Insufficiency
	10.2	 Mechanisms and Drivers of Acute Sarcopenia
	10.3	 Overlap with Other Clinical Syndromes
	10.4	 Diagnosis of Acute Sarcopenia in Clinical Settings
	10.5	 Proposed Interventions
	10.6	 Recommendations for Future Research
	10.7	 Conclusions
	References
11: Sarcopenic Obesity
	11.1	 Introduction
	11.2	 Pathogenesis
	11.3	 Evolving Definition
	11.4	 Complications of Sarcopenic Obesity
	11.5	 Management
	11.6	 Conclusion
	References
12: The Role of Physical Activity in Sarcopenia
	12.1	 An Overview of Physical Activity
	12.2	 Physical Activity and Its Role in Preventing and Managing Sarcopenia
	12.3	 Aerobic Physical Activity and Sarcopenia
	12.4	 Resistance Exercise and Sarcopenia
	12.5	 Combined Aerobic and Resistance Exercise and Sarcopenia
	12.6	 Neuromotor Exercise and Sarcopenia
	12.7	 Sedentary Behaviour and Sarcopenia
	12.8	 Summary
	References
13: Nutritional Approaches for Sarcopenia
	13.1	 Introduction
	13.2	 Nitrogen Balance and Exogenous Antioxidants
		13.2.1	 Important Dietary Factors
			13.2.1.1	 Protein
				Variability in Response to Interventions with Dietary Protein
				Intake of Dietary Amino Acids
				Current Clinical Recommendations for Protein Intake
			13.2.1.2	 The B Group Vitamins
			13.2.1.3	 Vitamin C
			13.2.1.4	 Vitamin D
			13.2.1.5	 Vitamin E
			13.2.1.6	 Carotenoids
			13.2.1.7	 Minerals: Magnesium
			13.2.1.8	 Minerals and Trace Elements: Calcium, Iron, Potassium, Phosphorus, Selenium and Zinc
			13.2.1.9	 Fatty Acids
		13.2.2	 Dietary Patterns
	13.3	 Summary, Recommendations, and Guidelines
	References
14: The Future of Drugs in Sarcopenia
	14.1	 Introduction
	14.2	 Myostatin/Activin Pathway Antagonism
		14.2.1	 Myostatin Inhibitors
		14.2.2	 Activin Inhibitors
	14.3	 Hormones
		14.3.1	 Androgen Supplementation
			14.3.1.1	 Testosterone
			14.3.1.2	 Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators
			14.3.1.3	 Dehydroepiandrosterone
		14.3.2	 Oestrogens and Phytoestrogens
		14.3.3	 Tibolone
		14.3.4	 Growth Hormone
		14.3.5	 Ghrelin and Melanocortin
		14.3.6	 Pathways of Sarcopenia and Possible Future Target Treatment
	14.4	 Conclusion
	References
15: Sarcopenia and Covid-19: A New Entity?
	15.1	 Introduction
	15.2	 Nutritional Problems in COVID-19
		15.2.1	 Micronutrient Deficiencies
		15.2.2	 Access to Nutritional Care
	15.3	 Muscle Mass Loss and Sarcopenia in COVID-19
		15.3.1	 Acute Sarcopenia in COVID-19
		15.3.2	 Post-COVID-19 Syndrome
	15.4	 Possible Treatments of Sarcopenia in COVID-19
		15.4.1	 Nutritional Approaches to Sarcopenia in COVID-19
		15.4.2	 Rehabilitation for Sarcopenia in COVID-19
	15.5	 Conclusions
	References