Safety Analysis of Foods of Animal Origin

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
ISBN 9781439848173......Page 4
Contents......Page 5
Preface......Page 8
Editors......Page 10
Contributors......Page 12
Part I: Meat, Processed Meats and Poultry......Page 17
1. Methods to Predict Spoilage of Muscle Foods......Page 19
1.1 Introduction......Page 20
1.2.2 Alternative Culture Methods......Page 21
1.3 Direct Epifluorescent Filtration Technique......Page 22
1.4 ATP Bioluminescence Methods......Page 24
1.6 Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate Assay......Page 25
1.8 Developmental Methods......Page 26
1.8.2 Molecular Methods......Page 27
1.10 Time–Temperature Integrators......Page 30
1.11 Conclusion......Page 31
References......Page 32
2. Microbial Foodborne Pathogens......Page 37
2.2 Cultural Methods......Page 38
2.2.1 Enumeration Methods......Page 39
2.3 Alternative or Rapid Microbiological Methods......Page 40
2.3.2 Detection and Enumeration Methods......Page 41
2.4.1 Detection of Listeria monocytogenes......Page 43
2.4.2 Enumeration of Listeria monocytogenes......Page 45
2.4.3 Confirmation of Listeria monocytogenes......Page 46
2.5.1 Detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7......Page 48
2.5.3 Confirmation of Escherichia coli O157:H7......Page 50
2.6 Salmonella spp.......Page 51
2.6.1 Detection and Confirmation of Salmonella spp.......Page 52
2.7.1 Enumeration and Confirmation of Staphylococcus aureus......Page 54
2.8.1 Detection and Confirmation of Yersinia enterocolitica......Page 56
2.9.1 Enumeration and Confirmation of Bacillus cereus......Page 58
2.10 Clostridium perfringens......Page 60
2.10.1 Enumeration and Confirmation of Clostridium perfringens......Page 61
2.11.1 Detection and Confirmation of Campylobacter jejuni......Page 63
References......Page 65
3. Parasites......Page 75
3.1 Trichinella spp......Page 76
3.1.1 Direct Detection Methods......Page 77
3.1.2 Indirect Detection Methods......Page 82
3.2 Taenia spp......Page 83
3.3 Toxoplasma gondii......Page 84
3.5.1 Ascaris suum......Page 85
3.5.2 Fasciola hepatica and Other Liver Flukes......Page 86
3.5.3 Echinococcus spp......Page 87
3.6 Future Visions......Page 88
References......Page 89
4. Mycotoxin Analysis in Poultry and Processed Meats......Page 93
4.1 Introduction......Page 94
4.2.1 Trichothecenes......Page 97
4.2.2 Zearalenone......Page 102
4.2.3 Fumonisins......Page 103
4.2.4 Aflatoxins......Page 105
4.2.5 Ochratoxin A......Page 107
4.2.6 Other Toxins......Page 108
4.3.1 Trichothecenes......Page 110
4.3.2 Zearalenone......Page 113
4.3.4 Aflatoxins......Page 116
4.3.5 Ochratoxin A......Page 117
4.4 Mycotoxin Analysis and Prevalence in Processed Meats......Page 120
4.4.3 Citrinin......Page 121
References......Page 123
5. Detection of Genetically Modified Organisms in Processed Meats and Poultry......Page 141
5.1.1 Genetically Modified Organism Production for Food and Feed......Page 142
5.1.2 Legislative Framework for Genetically Modified Organism Traceability......Page 143
5.1.3 Analytical Methods for Genetically Modified Organism Traceability......Page 144
5.1.4 Transgenic Material in Processed Meats and Poultry......Page 145
5.2.1 DNA–Based Methods......Page 146
5.2.2 Protein-Based Methods......Page 159
5.2.3 Alternative Techniques for GMO Detection......Page 161
References......Page 164
6. Detection of Adulterations: Addition of Foreign Proteins......Page 171
6.1.2 Reduction of Meat Fat Conten......Page 172
6.2 Kinds of Foreign Proteins Added to Processed Meats......Page 173
6.4 Electrophoretic Methods for the Detection of Foreign Proteins in Processed Meats......Page 174
6.5.2 Immunodiffusion......Page 180
6.5.3 Indirect Hemagglutination......Page 184
6.5.4 Immunological Methods Comprising Electrophoretical Separations......Page 185
6.5.5 Immunoassays......Page 186
6.6.1 Analysis of Amino Acids......Page 188
6.6.3 Analysis of Whole Proteins......Page 190
6.7 Other Methods for the Detection of Foreign Proteins in Processed Meats......Page 192
References......Page 193
7. Detection of Adulterations: Identification of Animal Species......Page 203
7.3.1 Deoxyribonucleic Acid Extraction......Page 204
7.3.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction......Page 205
References......Page 214
8. Detection of Irradiated Ingredients......Page 223
8.1 Introduction to Food Irradiation......Page 224
8.2 Can Irradiated Foodstuffs Be Identified in the Marketplace?......Page 225
8.2.1 Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Hydrocarbons (EN1784)......Page 226
8.2.2 Gas Chromatography: Mass Spectrometric Analysis of 2-Alkylcyclobutanones (EN1785)......Page 228
8.2.3 Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy......Page 229
8.2.4 Luminescence Methods: Detection of Irradiated Food from Which Silicate Minerals Can Be Isolated......Page 232
8.2.5 DNA Comet Assay......Page 234
8.2.6 Measurement of Microbiological Changes......Page 235
8.2.7 Other Methods Explored......Page 236
8.2.8 Application of Detection Methods in the Marketplace......Page 237
References......Page 239
9. Growth Promoters......Page 245
9.1 Introduction......Page 246
9.2 Control of Growth Promoters......Page 247
9.3.1 Samples from Animal Farms......Page 249
9.4.2 Immunoaffinity Chromatography......Page 250
9.5.2 Biosensors......Page 251
9.6 Confirmatory Analytical Method......Page 252
References......Page 259
10. Antibiotic Residues in Muscle Tissues of Edible Animal Products......Page 265
10.1.1 Antibiotics and Antibacterials in Veterinary Practice......Page 266
10.1.2 Veterinary Drug Residue Regulatory Control for Food Safety......Page 267
10.1.3 Strategies for Screening and Confirmation of Antimicrobial Residues in Meat......Page 268
10.2.1 Microbiological Methods for Antimicrobial Residues......Page 269
10.2.2 Other Biological Methods......Page 270
10.3.1 Chromatographic Methodologies for Antimicrobial Residues......Page 272
10.3.3 Sample Preparation for Liquid Chromatography......Page 273
10.3.4 Modes of Separation in Liquid Chromatography......Page 274
10.3.5 Modes of Detection in Liquid Chromatography......Page 275
10.4.1 Aminoglycosides......Page 276
10.4.2 Amphenicols......Page 278
10.4.3 Beta-Lactams: Penicillins and Cephalosporins......Page 282
10.4.4 Macrolides and Lincosamides......Page 288
10.4.5 Nitrofurans......Page 296
10.4.6 Nitroimidazoles......Page 301
10.4.7 Quinolones......Page 306
10.4.8 Sulfonamide Antiinfectives......Page 317
10.4.9 Tetracyclines......Page 324
10.4.10 Polypeptidic Antibiotics......Page 325
10.4.12 Other Antibiotics (Novobiocin, Tiamulin)......Page 332
10.5 Conclusion......Page 338
Abbreviations......Page 341
References......Page 343
11. Determination of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Meat......Page 365
11.1.2 Laboratory Safety......Page 366
11.1.3 The Stockholm Convention on POPs......Page 367
11.1.5 Polychlorodibenzo-p-Dioxins and Polychlorodibenzofurans......Page 376
11.1.7 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers......Page 377
11.1.8 Polyfluorinated Alkylated Substances......Page 378
11.2.1 Organochlorine Pesticides......Page 379
11.2.2 Polychlorodibenzo-p-Dioxins, Polychlorodibenzofurans, and Dioxin-Like Polychlorobiphenyls......Page 385
11.2.3 Non-Dioxin-Like Polychlorobiphenyls and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers......Page 396
11.2.4 Polyfluorinated Alkylated Substances......Page 400
11.3.4 Bioassay Reliability and Applicability......Page 403
Abbreviations......Page 404
References......Page 406
12. Biogenic Amines......Page 415
12.1.2 Relevance of Biogenic Amines in Food......Page 416
12.2.2 Occurrence of Biogenic Amines in Meat and Meat Products......Page 418
12.2.3 Biogenic Amine Index......Page 420
12.3.1 Biogenic Amine Extraction and Cleanup......Page 422
12.3.2 Analytical Procedures to Detect and Quantify Biogenic Amines......Page 423
References......Page 430
13.1 Introduction......Page 437
13.2 Chemistry......Page 438
13.3 Formation and Occurrence in Meat and Meat Products
......Page 440
13.5 Regulatory Aspects......Page 441
13.6 Analytical Aspects......Page 442
13.6.1 Sample Preparation......Page 443
References......Page 453
14. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 457
14.1.1 Principles of Smoking......Page 458
14.1.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 459
14.2 Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 460
14.2.1 Sample Preparation......Page 461
14.2.2 Preseparation Procedures......Page 463
14.2.3 Comparison of Gas Chromatography and High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography......Page 472
References......Page 473
Part II: Fish and Seafoods......Page 477
15. Assessment of Seafood Spoilage and the Microorganisms Involved......Page 479
15.1 Introduction......Page 480
15.3.1 Assay for TMA......Page 481
15.4.1 The Genus Pseudomonas......Page 482
15.4.3 The Genus Shewanella......Page 485
15.4.4 The Genera Moraxella and Acinetobacter......Page 486
15.4.5 The Genera Flavobacterium and Cytophaga......Page 487
15.4.8 The Genus Lactobacillus......Page 488
15.5 The Microbiology of Modified Atmosphere Stored Seafood......Page 489
15.7.1 Determination of Total Aerobic Plate Counts......Page 490
15.8.1 Genetic Transformation Assay for Confirming the Identity of Psychrobacter immobilis Isolates
......Page 492
15.8.3 Proteolysis......Page 494
15.8.5 DNase Activity......Page 495
References......Page 497
16. Detection of the Principal Foodborne Pathogens in Seafoods and Seafood-Related Environments......Page 501
16.1 Introduction......Page 502
16.2.1 Detection of Pathogenic Vibrio Species in Seafoods and Seafood-Related Environments......Page 504
16.2.2 Detection of L. monocytogenes in Seafoods and Seafood-Related Environments......Page 512
16.2.3 Detection of Salmonella spp. in Seafoods and Seafood-Related Environments......Page 514
References......Page 516
17. Parasites......Page 523
17.1 Protozoa......Page 525
17.2 Trematodes......Page 526
17.4 Anisakid Nematodes......Page 531
17.7.1 Primary Production and Handling......Page 539
17.7.2 Thermal Processing......Page 540
17.8 Further Developments......Page 541
References......Page 542
18. Techniques of Diagnosis of Fish and Shellfish Virus and Viral Diseases......Page 547
18.2 Diagnosis: Its Definition......Page 548
18.3 Validation of Diagnostic Tests......Page 549
18.4 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Diagnosis: Sample Processing......Page 550
18.5 Methods of Diagnosis for Aquatic Animal Diseases......Page 552
18.6.3 Immunohistochemistry......Page 553
18.7.1 Cell Lines and Cell Culture......Page 557
18.7.3 Viral Isolation in Cell Culture......Page 558
18.7.4 Performance of the Diagnostic Procedure......Page 559
18.8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Immunological Diagnostic Tools......Page 560
18.8.3 Description of Immune Diagnostic Procedures......Page 563
18.8.4 Antibody Detection Diagnosis......Page 565
18.9.1 Scientific Basis: An Overview......Page 566
18.9.2 Performance of the Molecular Techniques of Diagnosis: Critical Steps and Critical Factors......Page 571
18.9.3 Molecular Methods of Diagnosis: Brief Description of Protocols......Page 575
18.10 Nonlethal Methods of Diagnosis......Page 578
References......Page 579
19. Marine Toxins......Page 593
19.2.1 Ciguatoxin......Page 594
19.2.2 Tetrodotoxin......Page 597
19.3.1 Saxitoxin—Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning......Page 599
19.3.2 Okadaic Acid—Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning......Page 602
19.3.3 Domoic Acid—Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning......Page 604
19.3.4 Brevetoxin—Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning......Page 606
19.4.1 Hepatotoxins—Microcystins......Page 608
19.5 Conclusion......Page 610
References......Page 611
20. Detection of Adulterations: Addition of Foreign Proteins......Page 619
20.2 Electrophoresis......Page 620
20.3 Immunological Techniques......Page 621
20.4 Visible and Near-Infrared Spectrometry.......Page 622
20.7 DNA Methods......Page 623
20.7.2 Species-Specific PCR or Multiplex PCR......Page 624
20.7.4 PCR-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism......Page 625
20.7.6 PCR Lab-on-a-Chip......Page 626
References......Page 627
21. Detection of Adulterations: Identification of Seafood Species......Page 631
21.2 Replacement Species and Adulterations......Page 632
21.3 Methods Based on Proteins......Page 635
21.4.1 Sample Handling and DNA Extraction......Page 636
21.4.2 DNA Sequencing Methods......Page 637
21.4.3 Non-DNA Sequencing Methods......Page 641
21.5 Future Prospects......Page 647
References......Page 648
22. Spectrochemical Methods for the Determination of Metals in Seafood......Page 657
22.2.1 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry......Page 658
22.2.2 Atomic Emission Spectrometry......Page 662
22.2.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry......Page 665
22.2.4 Practice of Analytical Atomic Spectroscopy......Page 666
22.2.5 Sample Preparation for Metal Determination in Seafood by Spectrochemical Methods......Page 667
22.3 Selected Application of Spectrochemical Methods in Seafood......Page 668
References......Page 675
23. Food Irradiation and Its Detection......Page 679
23.1.2 High Energy Irradiation for Food Preservation......Page 680
23.1.3 Development of Food Irradiation......Page 681
23.1.4 Global Acceptance and Attitudes......Page 685
23.1.5 Detection Methods for Irradiated Foods......Page 686
23.2.1 Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy......Page 687
23.2.2 Analysis of Radiolytic Chemicals......Page 688
23.2.3 DNA Methods......Page 691
23.2.4 Luminescence......Page 693
23.2.5 Microbiological Methods......Page 694
References......Page 695
24.1 Introduction......Page 703
24.2 Veterinary Drugs Used in Aquaculture......Page 704
24.3 Origin of Veterinary Drug Residues......Page 706
24.4.2 Instrumental Analytical Approaches......Page 707
24.5.1 Bactericidal Drugs (Antibiotics)......Page 711
24.5.3 Tranquilizers......Page 717
24.5.6 Hormones......Page 718
24.6 Future Developments......Page 720
References......Page 721
25. Analysis of Dioxins in Seafood and Seafood Products......Page 723
25.1 Introduction......Page 724
25.2.2 Spiking and Recovery Studies......Page 725
25.3.2 Solid Phase Extraction and Matrix Solid Phase Dispersion......Page 726
25.3.4 Accelerated Solvent Extraction......Page 727
25.4 Cleanup Methods......Page 728
25.5 Fractionation/Group Separation......Page 729
25.6 Automation of Extraction and Cleanup......Page 730
25.7.1 GC Congener Separation......Page 731
25.7.2 GC Detectors......Page 733
25.8 Bioanalytical Screening Methods......Page 734
References......Page 735
26. Environmental Contaminants: Persistent Organic Pollutants......Page 743
26.2 Characterization of PAHs......Page 744
26.2.1 PAHs Methods of Extraction......Page 745
26.2.2 Clean-Up of Extracts......Page 747
26.2.3 Chromatographic Analysis......Page 749
26.3 Characterization of PCBs......Page 750
26.3.1 PCBs Methods of Extraction......Page 751
26.3.2 Clean-Up of Extracts......Page 753
26.3.3 Chromatographic Analysis......Page 754
References......Page 756
27.1 Introduction......Page 759
27.2 Toxicity of Biogenic Amines in Seafood......Page 760
27.3 Biogenic Amines as Quality Index in Seafood......Page 762
27.4 Legal Limits of Biogenic Amines in Seafood......Page 763
27.5.1 Raw Material......Page 764
27.5.2 Microorganisms......Page 765
27.5.3 Processing and the Storage Conditions of Seafood......Page 766
27.6.2 Determination Process......Page 769
References......Page 772
28. Detection of GM Ingredients in Fish Feed......Page 777
28.1.2 GMOs in Fish Feed......Page 778
28.1.3 International Regulations......Page 779
28.2.2 DNA-Based Detection......Page 780
28.2.3 Protein-Based Detection......Page 783
28.3.1 Protein-Based Methods......Page 785
28.3.2 DNA-Based Methods......Page 786
28.4.1 Microarray Technology......Page 787
28.5 Conclusions......Page 788
References......Page 789
Part III: Milk and Dairy Foods......Page 795
29.1 Introduction......Page 797
29.2 Microbial Ecology of Dairy Products......Page 798
29.3.1 Culture-Dependent Methods......Page 799
29.3.2 Culture-Independent Methods......Page 804
References......Page 806
30.1 Introduction......Page 815
30.2 Detection of Microbial Spoilage of Milk and Dairy Products......Page 816
30.2.1 Detection Methods of Spoilage Microorganisms......Page 818
30.2.3 Microbial Metabolites as Markers of Milk and Dairy Products Spoilage......Page 820
30.2.4 Volatile Compounds as Markers of Milk and Dairy Products Spoilage......Page 821
30.4 Modeling Spoilage......Page 822
References......Page 823
31. PCR-Based Methods for Detection of Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens in Dairy Products......Page 827
31.2 PCR: Principles and Applications......Page 828
31.4 PCR Methods for Foodborne Pathogens in Dairy Products......Page 829
31.4.1 Salmonella......Page 830
31.4.3 Enterobacter sakazakii......Page 832
31.5 Future Perspective......Page 834
References......Page 835
32. Mycotoxins and Toxins......Page 839
32.1.2 Mycotoxin Analysis......Page 840
32.2.1 Introduction......Page 855
32.2.2 Analysis of Bacterial Toxins in Dairy Foods......Page 856
References......Page 860
33. Detection of Adulterations: Addition of Foreign Lipids and Proteins......Page 867
33.1.3 Lipids, Proteins and Authentication Testing......Page 868
33.2.2 Authentication Testing......Page 869
33.3.2 Authentication Testing......Page 872
33.4 Conclusions......Page 876
References......Page 877
34.1 Introduction......Page 881
34.2.1 Electrophoretic Methods......Page 882
34.2.2 Chromatographic Methods......Page 885
34.2.3 Antibody-Based Analytical Methods......Page 886

34.4 DNA-Based Methods of Detection—Species-Specific PCR......Page 890
References......Page 896
35.1 Introduction......Page 903
35.2 Analytical Methods......Page 904
35.2.1 Screening Methods......Page 905
35.2.2 Confirmatory Methods......Page 906
35.3 Method Validation and Measurement Uncertainty......Page 916
References......Page 917
36.1 Introduction......Page 923
36.2.1 Phthalates in Infant Milk......Page 926
36.2.2 Milk for General Consumption......Page 932
36.2.4 Phthalates in Nondairy Food Products......Page 933
36.2.5 Phthalates in Total Diet......Page 934
36.3 Migration of Phthalates into Milk and Other Dairy Products......Page 936
36.4.2 Sample Pretreatment, Extraction, and Cleanup......Page 937
36.4.3 Instrumental Conditions......Page 940
36.5 Concluding Remarks......Page 941
References......Page 942
37.1 Introduction......Page 945
37.1.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants......Page 946
37.1.2 Pesticides......Page 947
37.2 Regulations......Page 948
37.3.1 Extraction......Page 949
37.3.2 Cleanup......Page 957
37.3.3 Identification and Quantitation......Page 959
37.3.4 Selective Detectors for HRGC......Page 960
37.3.5 The Mass Spectrometric Detector......Page 961
References......Page 962
38. Allergens......Page 967
38.2 Characteristics of Milk Allergy......Page 968
38.3.2 Skin Prick Test, RAST/EAST Inhibition and Allergen Microarrays......Page 969
38.4 Effects of Food Processing on Milk Allergenicity......Page 970
38.4.1 Heat Treatment......Page 971
38.4.3 Ripening......Page 972
38.5 Analytical Tools for the Detection of Milk Allergens in Food Products......Page 973
38.5.1 Immunodetection......Page 974
38.6 Detection of Milk Allergens in Dairy Foods and Other Food Products: Hidden Allergens......Page 977
38.7 Conclusion......Page 978
References......Page 979
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