Roots, Tubers, and Bulb Crop Wastes: Management by Biorefinery Approaches

Preface
Contents
About the Editor
1: Roots, Tubers, and Bulb Crops Wastes: Residue Utilization for Industrial Biotechnology
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Residue Composition
		1.2.1 Root Crops
		1.2.2 Tuber Crops
		1.2.3 Bulb Crops
		1.2.4 Residue Disposal
	1.3 Biological Conversion of Crop Residue
		1.3.1 Pretreatment Processes
	1.4 Application of Roots, Tubers, and Bulb Crops Waste for Industrial Biotechnology
		1.4.1 Biofuels
			1.4.1.1 Potato Waste
			1.4.1.2 Cassava Waste
			1.4.1.3 Sugar Beet Waste
			1.4.1.4 Carrot Waste
		1.4.2 Bioproducts and Biomaterials
			1.4.2.1 Bioplastic
			1.4.2.2 Organic Acids
			1.4.2.3 Other Compounds
	1.5 Future Prospects
	References
2: Biovalorization of Potato Peel Waste: An Overview
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Composition of Potato Peel (PP)
	2.3 Utilisation of Potato Peel in Different Areas/Valorization
		2.3.1 Pharmaceutical Application
		2.3.2 Application in the Baking Industry
		2.3.3 Biotechnological Applications
			2.3.3.1 Organic Acid Production
			2.3.3.2 Glucose Production
			2.3.3.3 Dietary Fibers and Nutrition
			2.3.3.4 Application of Potato Peel Waste for Energy Production
				Biogas Production
				Bioethanol Production
				Biohydrogen Production
			2.3.3.5 Animal Feed
			2.3.3.6 Production of Enzymes
			2.3.3.7 Production of Biofertilizer
			2.3.3.8 Applications in Biofilms/Biocomposites
			2.3.3.9 Antioxidants from PP
	2.4 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
3: Potato Peel Enrichment in Functional Food and Feed
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Global Production of Potato
	3.3 Agronomic Features of Potato Peel: Taxonomy, Morphology, and Biodiversity
	3.4 Nutritional Composition of Potato Peel
	3.5 Health-Promoting Activities of Potato Peel
	3.6 Concept of Food Enrichment
		3.6.1 Enrichment Applications in Cereal-Based Foods
		3.6.2 Meat-Based Foods
		3.6.3 Enrichment in Edible Oils
		3.6.4 Films and Coatings
	3.7 Enrichment of Potato Peel in Animal Feeds
		3.7.1 Pig Feed
		3.7.2 Chicken Feed
		3.7.3 Fish Feed
	3.8 Conclusion
	References
4: Management of Potato Peel Waste Through Biorefinery Approaches
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Generation, Composition, and Pretreatment of Potato Peel Wastes
	4.3 Biorefinery Approaches for PPWs Utilization
		4.3.1 Biofuel Production
		4.3.2 Production of Bioadsorbents
		4.3.3 Production of Biopolymer
		4.3.4 Energy Storage Applications
		4.3.5 Other Biorefinery Approaches to PPWs Utilization
			4.3.5.1 Animal Feed
			4.3.5.2 Biofertilizer Production
			4.3.5.3 Organic Acids Production
			4.3.5.4 Medical and Pharmaceutical Applications
	4.4 Challenges, Prospects, and Future Research
	4.5 Conclusion
	References
5: Bioprocessing Cassava Bagasse: Part I-Bioproducts and Biochemicals
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 World Production of Cassava
	5.3 Types of Waste Generated
		5.3.1 Solid Waste
		5.3.2 Liquid Waste
	5.4 Bioproducts and Biochemicals
		5.4.1 Bioproducts
			5.4.1.1 Biocomposites
			5.4.1.2 Biopolymers
			5.4.1.3 Bioplastics
			5.4.1.4 Carbon Dots
			5.4.1.5 Bioadsorbents
			5.4.1.6 Biochar
			5.4.1.7 Compost
			5.4.1.8 Mushrooms
		5.4.2 Platform Chemicals
			5.4.2.1 Organic Acids
			5.4.2.2 Nanomaterials
			5.4.2.3 Sorbitol and Polyols
			5.4.2.4 Xanthan Gum and Other Microbial Polysaccharides
			5.4.2.5 Bio-Oil
			5.4.2.6 Microbial Enzymes
			5.4.2.7 Biocolor
	5.5 Conclusion
	References
6: Bioprocessing of Cassava Bagasse: Part II-Potential for Renewable Biofuels
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Status of Global Production and Waste Disposal of Cassava Waste
	6.3 Potential of Cassava Bagasse
	6.4 Different Stages During Lignocellulose-Starch Biomass Bioprocesses
	6.5 Application of CB for Renewable Biofuels
		6.5.1 Bioethanol
		6.5.2 Biohydrogen
		6.5.3 Biogas
		6.5.4 Biobutanol
	6.6 Conclusion, Challenges, and Future Prospects
	References
7: Bio-Valorization of Sweet Potato Bagasse into Food Additives, Feeds, and Fuels
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Proximate Composition of Sweet Potato
	7.3 Waste Generation During Harvesting and Postharvest Handling
		7.3.1 Utilization of Leaves, Vines, and Discarded Tubers
		7.3.2 Utilization of Peels
		7.3.3 Utilization of Residues from Starch Production
		7.3.4 Utilization of Waste from Alcoholic Fermentations
	7.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
8: Yams and Aroid Crop Waste: Bio Valorization into Bioproducts and Platform Chemicals
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Yams and Aroids: Taxonomy, Botany, Global Production (FAO Data), and Waste Generation
		8.2.1 Yams: Species, Botany (Morphology), and Edible Parts
			8.2.1.1 Taxonomy
			8.2.1.2 Botany
		8.2.2 Aroids: EFY-Taro, Xanthosoma, Etc.-Botany (Morphology), Edible Parts
			8.2.2.1 Taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott)
			8.2.2.2 Botany
		8.2.3 Elephant Foot Yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson)
			8.2.3.1 Botany
		8.2.4 Tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott)
			8.2.4.1 Taxonomy
	8.3 Waste Generation
		8.3.1 Yams Waste into Bioproducts and Platform Chemicals
			8.3.1.1 Bioethanol Production
			8.3.1.2 Energy Generation
			8.3.1.3 Bioremediation
			8.3.1.4 Substrate for the Production of Enzymes and Organic Acids
			8.3.1.5 Protein Enrichment as a Functional Food Additive
		8.3.2 Aroids (Taro, Elephant Foot Yam, Tannia) Waste into Bioproducts and Platform Chemicals
			8.3.2.1 Taro
			8.3.2.2 Biofuels (Bioethanol and Biogas)
			8.3.2.3 Compost and Vermicompost
			8.3.2.4 Biopolymer
			8.3.2.5 Animal Feed
			8.3.2.6 Media for Beneficial Organisms
		8.3.3 Elephant Foot Yam (EFY)
			8.3.3.1 EFY Waste Utilization as Animal Feed
			8.3.3.2 EFY Peel Utilization to Extract Phytochemicals and Antioxidants
			8.3.3.3 Utilization of EFY to Produce Biofuel
			8.3.3.4 Utilization of EFY Waste in Supercapacitor
			8.3.3.5 EFY Waste Utilization in Wastewater Treatment
			8.3.3.6 Use of EFY in Syrup
			8.3.3.7 EFY Waste Utilization for Enzyme Production
		8.3.4 Tannia
			8.3.4.1 Bioethanol Production
			8.3.4.2 Protein Enrichment of Peel
	8.4 Future Prospectus
	8.5 Conclusion
	References
9: Valorization of Carrot and Turnip Processing Wastes and By-Products
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 History of Carrot and Turnip
			9.1.1.1 Carrots
			9.1.1.2 Turnips
		9.1.2 Nutritional Value
			9.1.2.1 Carrots
			9.1.2.2 Turnips
		9.1.3 Fruit and Vegetable-Based Industries
		9.1.4 Waste Generation
		9.1.5 Conversion of Carrot and Turnip Wastes into Value-Added Products
			9.1.5.1 Carrots
			9.1.5.2 Turnips
	9.2 Total World Production, Harvested Areas, and Yield of Carrot and Turnip (Recent FAO Data)
		9.2.1 Geographical Distribution of Carrot and Turnip
			9.2.1.1 Carrots
			9.2.1.2 Turnips
		9.2.2 Production, Processing, and Storage
		9.2.3 Yield of Carrot and Turnip Wastes
			9.2.3.1 Carrots
			9.2.3.2 Turnips
	9.3 Botany, Morphology, and Composition of the Crops
		9.3.1 Botanical Origin
			9.3.1.1 Carrots
			9.3.1.2 Turnips
		9.3.2 Morphology
			9.3.2.1 Carrots
			9.3.2.2 Turnips
		9.3.3 Composition of Carrot and Turnip Crop
			9.3.3.1 Carrots
			9.3.3.2 Turnips
	9.4 Harvesting and Storage of the Crops
		9.4.1 Carrots
		9.4.2 Turnips
	9.5 Processing and Production of Wastes of the Crops and Waste Composition
		9.5.1 Carrots
		9.5.2 Turnips
	9.6 Aspects of Waste Valorization
		9.6.1 Nutrients and Bioactive Components
			9.6.1.1 Carrots
			9.6.1.2 Turnips
		9.6.2 Extraction by Using Conventional and Non-conventional Methods
			9.6.2.1 Carrots
			9.6.2.2 Turnips
		9.6.3 Applications of Carrot and Turnip Wastes in the Food Industry
			9.6.3.1 Carrots
			9.6.3.2 Turnips
		9.6.4 Utilization of Carrot and Turnip Waste in Pharmaceuticals/Nutraceuticals (Table 9.3)
			9.6.4.1 Carrot
			9.6.4.2 Turnip
		9.6.5 Bioethanol Production
			9.6.5.1 Carrots
			9.6.5.2 Turnips
		9.6.6 Technical Difficulties
			9.6.6.1 Extraction Process
			9.6.6.2 Microbiological Instability
	9.7 Future Research and Conclusion
	References
10: Sugar Beet Waste as Substrate for Microbial Production of Food Ingredients
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 World Production of Sugar Beet (FAO Data)
	10.3 Taxonomy and Botany
	10.4 Types of Liquid and Solid Waste (Source of Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Pectin)
	10.5 Fermentation as a Valorization Tool and Biorefinery Approach
		10.5.1 Solid-State Fermentation
		10.5.2 Submerged Fermentation
	10.6 Pre-treatment Strategies: Acid Hydrolysis, Enzymatic Hydrolysis, Acid-Enzyme Hydrolysis, and Hydrothermal Hydrolysis
		10.6.1 Acid Hydrolysis
		10.6.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
		10.6.3 Hydrothermal Hydrolysis
	10.7 Sugar Beet Bagasse as Substrate
		10.7.1 Cattle Feed
		10.7.2 Single-Cell Protein
		10.7.3 Foods with Improved Aroma
		10.7.4 Microbial Growth Enhancer
		10.7.5 Agro-industrial Waste like Beet Pulp as a Potential Source of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) Production
		10.7.6 Bioethanol Production Using Sugar Beet
	10.8 Future Perspectives and Conclusion
	References
11: Valorization of Beetroot Waste for Extraction of Natural Dye for Textile and Food Applications
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Taxonomy and Morphology of Beetroot Plant
	11.3 Chemical Composition of Beetroot
	11.4 Waste Generation from Beetroot Processing and Its Use for Extraction of Natural Dyes
	11.5 Methods of Extraction of Natural Dyes from Beetroot Waste
		11.5.1 Physical Extraction Method
			11.5.1.1 Maceration
			11.5.1.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Technique
			11.5.1.3 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
			11.5.1.4 Pulse Electric Field
			11.5.1.5 Other Methods
		11.5.2 Chemical Methods of Extraction of Natural Dyes from Beetroot Waste
			11.5.2.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
			11.5.2.2 Solid-Liquid Extraction
		11.5.3 Enzymatic-Assisted Extraction
		11.5.4 Other Methods Involving the Extraction of Natural Dyes from Beetroot Waste
	11.6 Post-extraction Processing
	11.7 Stability Issue of Natural Dye Extracted from Beetroot
	11.8 Applications of Beetroot Color
		11.8.1 Applications of Beetroot Color in the Food Industry
		11.8.2 Applications of Beetroot Color in the Textile Industry
	11.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
12: Valorization of Jerusalem Artichoke and Its Crop Residues Using Green Technologies
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Jerusalem Artichoke Characteristics
	12.3 Cultivation of JA
	12.4 JA Components
	12.5 JA Pretreatment
	12.6 Biorefinery Approaches on JA Tubers, Stalk, Leaves, etc.
		12.6.1 Biofuels
			12.6.1.1 Bioethanol
			12.6.1.2 Acetone and Butanol
			12.6.1.3 Biodiesel
		12.6.2 Organic Acids
		12.6.3 Wide-Ranging Applications
		12.6.4 Applications of JA in Human Health
			12.6.4.1 Antioxidant Capacity
			12.6.4.2 Dermatological Treatments
			12.6.4.3 Digestive System
			12.6.4.4 Improvement of Biochemical Parameters
			12.6.4.5 Superfood
		12.6.5 JA: Increasing Quality of Foods for Cooking
		12.6.6 JA Leaves Bioactive Compounds
	12.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives
	12.8 Conclusion
	References
13: Onion Solid Waste as a Potential Source of Functional Food Ingredients
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Composition of Onion Wastes
		13.2.1 Methods to Analyze Onion Waste Composition
			13.2.1.1 Analysis of Proximate Composition
			13.2.1.2 Quantification of Bioactive Compounds
				Extraction of Bioactive Compounds
				Quantification Methods
					Quantification Method Based on HPLC
					Quantification Method Based on Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS)
					Quantification Method Based on UV Spectrophotometer
	13.3 Onion Waste Processing Technologies and Their Products
		13.3.1 Solvent Extraction
		13.3.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
		13.3.3 Biological Extraction
		13.3.4 Assisted Extraction Techniques
		13.3.5 Hydrolysis and Fermentation
			13.3.5.1 Hydrolysis
			13.3.5.2 Fermentation
		13.3.6 Composting/Vermicomposting
	13.4 Application of OWs-Based Bioproducts
		13.4.1 Onion Skin Peel Paste and Powder
	13.5 Conclusions and Perspectives
	References
14: Biovalorization of Garlic Waste to Produce High Value-Added Products
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Abundance and Production of Garlic
	14.3 Harvesting and Storage of Garlic
	14.4 Morphology and Composition of Garlic Waste
	14.5 Processing and Wastes Production
	14.6 Structural Characterization of Garlic Waste
		14.6.1 Fourier Transforms Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Analysis
		14.6.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
		14.6.3 Solid-State 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
	14.7 Valuables Applications of Garlic Processing Waste
		14.7.1 Animal Feed
		14.7.2 Soil Amendment
		14.7.3 Garlic Waste Used as a Pollutant Absorbent
		14.7.4 Bio-energy
		14.7.5 Dietary Fiber, Reducing Sugars and Cellulose
		14.7.6 Biological Properties of Garlic Waste Extracts
		14.7.7 Antibacterial and Antioxidant
		14.7.8 Antifungal
		14.7.9 Antidiabetic
	14.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
15: Life Cycle Assessment of Valorization of Root and Tuber Crop Wastes for Bio-commodities and Biofuels: Cassava as a Case St...
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Waste Biorefinery
	15.3 Life Cycle Assessment for Waste Biorefinery
	15.4 Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)
	15.5 Bioethanol from Cassava
	15.6 Cassava Bioproducts
	15.7 Prospective for Cassava Sustainability
	15.8 Conclusions
	References
16: Prospective for Biorefineries Development from Roots, Tubers, and Bulb Crop Wastes and By-Products: Value Addition and Cir...
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Waste-Based Value-Added Products from Bulb, Roots, and Tuber Crop Wastes
		16.2.1 Potato
		16.2.2 Cassava
		16.2.3 Sweet Potato
		16.2.4 Yams and Aroids
		16.2.5 Sugar Beet and Beetroot
		16.2.6 Carrots and Turnips
		16.2.7 Jerusalem Artichoke
		16.2.8 Onion
		16.2.9 Garlic
	16.3 Techno-economic Assessment
		16.3.1 Feasibility of Large-Scale Implementations
		16.3.2 Economic Assessment of RTBCWs Valorization Pathways
		16.3.3 RTBCW Supply Chain Management and Logistics
		16.3.4 Consumers´ Acceptability
		16.3.5 The Market Price of Waste-Valorized Products Versus Conventional Products
	16.4 4. Limitations and Challenges
	16.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References