RFID at Ultra and Super High Frequencies: Theory and application

RFID AT ULTRA AND SUPER HIGH FREQUENCIES: Theory and application......Page 2
Contents......Page 8
About the Author......Page 14
Preface......Page 16
Acknowledgements......Page 20
Note to Readers......Page 22
Part One RFID: General Features, Basic Principles and Market......Page 24
1 Introduction, Definitions and Vocabulary......Page 26
1.1 To Understand Radio Frequency, We Must Know about Frequencies and Their Classification......Page 27
1.3 History......Page 29
1.4 Radio Frequency (or Contactless) Identification and Its Range of Applications......Page 30
1.5 The Concept of Contactless Communication......Page 31
1.6 The Elements, Terms and Vocabulary of RFID......Page 33
1.7 Vocabulary: The Many Terms Used for the Elements of RFID......Page 35
1.8 Appendix: Units and Constants......Page 37
2.1 Energy Transfer and Communication Modes......Page 40
2.2 Forward Link and Return Link......Page 42
2.3 Data Communications......Page 53
2.4 The Principle of Communication......Page 56
2.5 The Concept of Operating Modes......Page 58
2.6 General Operating Problems in Data Transmission......Page 60
2.7 More Specific Problems Relating to ‘Long Distance’ RFID Systems......Page 63
3.1 The Market for Contactless Technology and RFID......Page 66
3.2 Applications for Tags......Page 67
3.3 Operators and Participants in the Market......Page 73
Part Two Wave Propagation: Principles, Theories. . . and the Reality......Page 78
4.2 The Hertzian Dipole......Page 80
4.3 Classification of Fields and Regions of Space......Page 85
4.4 RFID Applications Using UHF and SHF, i.e. Far Field Applications......Page 89
4.5 The Hertzian Dipole and a Dipole of any Length, λ/n and λ/2......Page 108
4.6 List of the Main Formulae in this Chapter......Page 115
4.7 Appendix 1: Brief Notes on Maxwell’s Equations......Page 117
4.8 Appendix 2: Brief Notes on Complex Numbers......Page 119
4.9 Appendix 3: Brief Notes on Powers Expressed as Complex Numbers......Page 120
4.10 Appendix 4: Brief Notes on Vectors......Page 123
5.1 Isotropic and Anisotropic Antennas......Page 126
5.2 Antenna Gain......Page 128
5.3 Power Flux Density at One Point in Space......Page 133
5.4 Effective Radiated Power PERP......Page 135
6.1 Recovering the Transmitted Radiated Power (or Some of It)......Page 144
6.2 The Concept of Aperture or Surface......Page 145
6.3 Definition of the Main Parameters Required for an RFID Application......Page 163
7 Reality Check: How to Manage Everyday Problems......Page 186
7.1 Effects of the Application Environment......Page 187
7.2 Tag Polarization Losses, θ(polarization) = p......Page 200
7.3 Antenna Load Mismatch Factor, θ(load matching) = q......Page 206
7.4 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)......Page 210
7.6 By Way of Conclusion......Page 218
7.7 Real-World Examples of RFID at UHF and 2.45GHz......Page 219
7.8 Effects of the Mounting of the Integrated Circuit on the Tag Substrate......Page 221
7.10 Example at UHF and SHF......Page 222
7.11 Appendix: Fact and Fantasy About UHF Tags and Water......Page 225
8.1 The Physical Phenomenon of Wave Scattering......Page 230
8.3 Power Scattered/Reradiated/Reflected by the Tag, Ps......Page 232
8.4 Radar Cross-Section (RCS) of the Tag, σ(e s)......Page 243
8.5 Appendix......Page 261
9.1 The Principle of Communication by Back Scattering Between the Base Station and the Tag......Page 264
9.2 The Merit Factor of a Tag, Δσ(e s) or ΔRCS......Page 268
9.3 Appendix: Summary of the Principal Formulae of Chapters 7, 8 and 9......Page 292
10.2 Case 2: Application to a ‘Battery-Assisted Passive Tag’......Page 296
10.3 Examples 1a and 1b: Application to a ‘Remotely Powered Passive Tag’......Page 297
10.4 Example 2: Application to a ‘Battery-Assisted Passive Tag’......Page 304
Part Three Communication and Transmission, Baseband Signals, Carrier Modulation and Interleaving......Page 314
11.1 Bit Coding......Page 318
11.2 Different Types of Bit Coding for Use in RFID at UHF and SHF......Page 321
11.3 Summary of the Different Types of Bit Coding......Page 333
12.1 Type of Modulation......Page 334
12.2 Types of Carrier Modulation for the Forward Link from the Base Station to the Tag......Page 335
12.3 Amplitude Modulation......Page 336
12.4 Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation......Page 344
12.5 Conclusion......Page 347
13.1 Frequency Hopping and Agility Systems and Spread Spectrum Techniques......Page 348
13.2 Spread Spectrum Techniques (Spread Spectrum Modulation, SS)......Page 349
13.3 Frequency Hopping or Agility Systems for Spreading the Radiated Spectrum of Narrowband Modulated Carriers......Page 355
13.4 Spread Spectrum Systems for Spreading the Radiated Spectrum of Wideband Modulated Carriers......Page 365
13.5 ‘Hybrid’ Spread Spectrum Techniques: DSSS and FHSS......Page 373
13.6 Back to the Future......Page 374
13.7 Examples at SHF......Page 375
13.8 FHSS, LBT, DSSS. . . and RFID......Page 376
14.1 Relations, Interaction and Performance: How They Are Affected by the Choice of Bit Coding and the Types of Modulation Used......Page 380
14.2 General Conclusion of Part Three......Page 389
Part Four Standards and Regulations......Page 392
15.2 Users and Providers of Standards......Page 394
15.3 The ISO/OSI Layer Models......Page 395
15.4 ISO Standards for Contactless Technology......Page 399
15.5 Appendix 1: Hierarchy and Structure of the EPC System......Page 425
15.6 Appendix 2: Structure of the EPC Number......Page 426
15.7 Appendix 3: Some Facts about the Everyday Performance of ISO 18000-6 mode C – EPC C1 G2......Page 428
16.1 Survey of Standards and Regulations......Page 434
16.2 Summary of Regulations in the USA, Europe, France and the Rest of the World Relating to RFID at UHF and SHF......Page 438
16.3 Standards for Magnetic and Electrical Fields in a Human Environment: Human Exposure......Page 441
16.4 Other Requirements to be Met......Page 445
17.1 Frequency......Page 448
17.2 Transmission Level......Page 450
17.4 Comparison Between Europe and the USA......Page 463
17.5 UHF or 13.56 MHz Around the World and in Europe......Page 464
17.6 Appendix: The Main Standards and Regulations......Page 471
Part Five Components for Tags and Base Stations......Page 476
18.2 Summary of Operating Principles......Page 478
18.3 The Technology of Tags......Page 480
18.4 Antennas for Tags......Page 485
19.1 Introduction......Page 494
19.2 Examples of Base Station Hardware Architecture......Page 503
19.3 Examples of Products......Page 523
19.4 Antennas for Base Stations......Page 524
19.5 Some Concluding Remarks......Page 528
20.1 Official Measurement and Test Methods......Page 530
20.2 Required Parameters......Page 532
20.3 Simple Methods of Measurement......Page 533
20.4 By Way of Conclusion......Page 536
Conclusions......Page 540
Useful Addresses, Component Manufacturers and Further Reading......Page 542
Index......Page 544