Restoration of Ecosystems – Bridging Nature and Humans: A Transdisciplinary Approach

Preface
Contents
About the Author
I: Fundamentals
	1: Introduction to Restoration Ecology
		1.1	 Ecosystem Restoration and Restoration Ecology From a Historical Perspective
		1.2	 Ecological Terms and Key Concepts as a Basis for Ecosystem Restoration
			1.2.1	 Species and Populations
			1.2.2	 Ecosystems and Landscapes
		1.3	 Ecosystem Services
		1.4	 Degradation of Ecosystems
		1.5	 What Does Ecosystem Restoration Mean? A Definition
		1.6	 Scales of Restoration
		1.7	 Ecosystem Restoration in Relation to the Practice of Other Disciplines
	2: Which Ecosystem Should Be Restored? Reference Systems for Restoration
		2.1	 Pristine or Historical Reference
		2.2	 Reference Ecosystems of the Present-Day Cultural Landscape
		2.3	 Potential or Hypothetical Reference State
	3: Measures in the Practice of Ecosystem Restoration
		3.1 Doing Nothing (Passive Restoration)
		3.2 Stopping or Pushing Back Natural Succession
		3.3 Removal or Reduction of Nutrients from Soil and Water
			3.3.1	 Terrestrial Sites, Wetlands, and Peatland
			3.3.2	 Lakes
		3.4 Removal of Pollutants by Bioremediation
		3.5 Restoration of the Water Balance, Rewetting, and Hydro-morphological Interventions
		3.6 Erosion Control and Re-vegetation
		3.7 Introduction and Re-introduction of Diaspores and Target Species
		3.8 Inoculation with Mycorrhiza Fungi
		3.9 Repression of Undesirable Species by Pesticides
		3.10 Liming of Acidified Ecosystems
		3.11 Fertilisation
		3.12 Conclusion
	4: Re-introduction of Plant and Animal Species
		4.1	 Re-introduction of Plant Species
		4.2	 Re-introduction of Animal Species
		4.3	 Case Study: Re-introduction of the Brown Bear in Trentino, Northern Italy (EU Project LIFE Ursus)
	5: Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration
		5.1	 Are Non-native Species Problematic?
		5.2	 Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration
		5.3	 Recommendations for Dealing with Non-native Species in Ecosystem Restoration
		5.4	 With Rationality and Objectivity for the Alien
	6: Monitoring and Success Control
		6.1	 Ecological Monitoring: Basics and Recommendations for Practice
		6.2	 When Is a Restoration Project Successful?
		6.3	 Ecological and Nature Conservation Parameters for Monitoring and Success Control
		6.4	 Case Studies and Best Practice
II: Restoration of Specific Ecosystems and Land-Use Types in Central Europe and the Alps
	7: Forests
		7.1 Forest History in Central Europe Under Human Impact: From Natural Forests to Intensive Timber Production
		7.2 Vegetation and Ecology of Central European Forests
		7.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Provided by Forests
		7.4 Degradation of Forests and the Need for Restoration
		7.5 National and International Frameworks and Restoration Goals
		7.6 The Concept of Differentiated Forest Management
		7.7 Assessment of Forest Naturalness
		7.8 Use of Natural Processes for the Restoration of Forests and Forest Sites
			7.8.1 Regeneration of Anthropogenically Degraded Topsoil and Atmogenic Nitrogen Input
			7.8.2 Natural Regeneration of Target Tree Species in Coniferous Monocultures
			7.8.3 On the Importance of Short-Lived Tree Species for Forest Restoration
		7.9 Restoration of Wetland Forests
		7.10 Restoration of Forest Landscapes
		7.11 Preservation and Revitalisation of Traditional Forest Uses
		7.12 Case Study: New Forest and New Forest Landscapes After Open-Cast Lignite Mining in the Rhineland—Recultivation in the Südrevier
	8: Peatland
		8.1 From Natural to Degraded Peatlands: The History of Peatland Use in Central Europe
		8.2 Ecology and Typology of Peatlands
		8.3 Ecosystem Services of Peatland
		8.4 Assessing the Degradation of Peatland
		8.5 Regional, National, and International Peatland Protection Initiatives
		8.6 Initiating Peatland Restoration and Restoration Objectives
		8.7 Restoration Measures
			8.7.1	 Rewetting
			8.7.2	 Shallow Peat Removal (Flachabtorfung)
			8.7.3	 Introduction of Target Species and Nurse Plants
			8.7.4	 Dynamics of Phosphorus and Nutrient Removal
		8.8 Protection Through Peatland Use: Integrative Peatland Restoration
			8.8.1	 Reed as Multipurpose Plant Species on Peatlands
			8.8.2	 Forestry on Fens
		8.9 Monitoring and Success Control
		8.10 Case Study: The Dosenmoor in Schleswig-Holstein
	9: Subalpine and Alpine Grassland
		9.1	 The Alps as a Living and Economic Space
		9.2	 Ecological Site Conditions of the High Mountains
		9.3	 Alpine Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the European Alps
		9.4	 Challenges of the Restoration of High-Altitude Mountain Sites
		9.5	 Restoration Objectives for the High Altitudes of the Alps
		9.6	 Restoration Measures in the Subalpine and Alpine Mountain Sites
			9.6.1	 Suppressing Forest and Shrub Succession
			9.6.2	 Re-vegetation of Ski Slopes and Degraded Pastureland
			9.6.3	 Nutrient Removal on Eutrophicated Sites
			9.6.4	 Re-introduction of Animal and Plant Species
		9.7	 Avoiding Interventions in the High Altitudes of the Alps
		9.8	 Case Study: The Restoration of an Alpine Cultural Landscape Through Pasture Management in Styria
	10: Rivers and Floodplains
		10.1 Ecology of Rivers and Their Floodplains
		10.2 History of Use and Degradation of Rivers and Floodplains
		10.3 Ecosystem Services of Rivers and Floodplains
		10.4 Ecological Status Assessment of Rivers
		10.5 International Initiatives for the Restoration of Rivers
		10.6 Measures for River Restoration
			10.6.1 Interventions in the River Morphology
			10.6.2 Improvement of Physical and Chemical Water Conditions
			10.6.3 Re-introduction of Target Species
			10.6.4 Removal of Undesired Plant Species
		10.7 Success Control
		10.8 Case Study: Elbe Floodplain Near Lenzen—Natural Dynamics in a Cultural Landscape Shaped by the River
	11: Natural and Anthropogenic Lakes
		11.1 Diversity of Lakes in Central Europe
		11.2 Ecology of Lakes
			11.2.1 Stratification, Zonation, and Sedimentation
			11.2.2 Flora and Vegetation of Lakes and Lakeshores
		11.3 Anthropogenic Impacts on Lakes
			11.3.1 Eutrophication and Pollution
			11.3.2 Temperature Increase in Lakes
			11.3.3 Obstruction of Lakeshores
			11.3.4 Non-native Species in Lakes
		11.4 Ecological Status Assessment of Lakes
		11.5 Ecosystem Services of Lakes
			11.5.1 Habitat for Species and Biocenoses
			11.5.2 Fishery
			11.5.3 Self-Purification of Water
			11.5.4 Carbon Storage in Lakes
			11.5.5 Quality of Life and Human Health
			11.5.6 Lakes as Archives for Landscape History and Environmental Change
		11.6 Restoration Measures in Lakes and on Their Shores
			11.6.1 Restoration of the Lakeshore
			11.6.2 Interventions in the Lake Sediment
			11.6.3 Interventions in the Water Body
			11.6.4 Biomanipulation as an Intervention in the Food Web of Lakes
			11.6.5 Biological Lake Management with the Zebra Mussel
			11.6.6 Harvesting of Submerged and Floating Macrophytes for Nutrient Removal
		11.7 Concluding Assessment of Lake Restoration Measures
		11.8 Case Study: Lake Tegel in Berlin as an Urban Water Ecosystem
	12: Coastal and Inland Salt Grassland
		12.1 Coastal Salt Grassland
			12.1.1 Ecology and Vegetation of Saline Coastal Habitats
			12.1.2 Ecosystem Services of Coastal Salt Grassland
			12.1.3 Land-Use History and Environmental Changes of Coastal Salt Grassland
			12.1.4 Environmental Policy Framework for the Protection and Restoration of Coastal Habitats in Central and Western Europe
			12.1.5 Measures for the Restoration of Salt Grassland
				Deconstruction and Opening of Dikes and Its Ecosystem Effects
				Grazing as an Anthropo-Zoogenic Restoration Strategy for Salt Grassland
				Introduction of Target Species
			12.1.6 Case Study: Restoration of Salt Grassland in the National Park Wadden Sea on the North Sea Island of Langeoog
		12.2 Inland Saline Habitats
			12.2.1 Occurrence, Ecology, and Nature Conservation of Natural Inland Saline Sites in Central Europe
			12.2.2 Secondary Inland Saline Habitats
			12.2.3 Land-Use History, Degradation, and Threats to Inland Saline Habitats
			12.2.4 Restoration Measures on Inland Saline Habitats
			12.2.5 Case Study: Inland Saline Habitat Altensalzwedel in Saxony-Anhalt—Initial Success of a Restoration Project
	13: Marine Habitats in the North Sea and Baltic Sea
		13.1 Marine Ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea
			13.1.1 North Sea
			13.1.2 Baltic Sea
		13.2 Anthropogenic Evironmental Impacts on the Marine Ecosystems of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea
		13.3 Ecosystem Services and Threatened Marine Habitats
		13.4 International Marine Protection Initiatives
		13.5 An Overarching Concept for the Restoration of Marine Ecosystem Services
		13.6 Measures for the Restoration of Marine Habitats
			13.6.1 Interventions in the Biotic Ecosystem Compartments
			13.6.2 Interventions in the Abiotic Conditions
	14: Lowland and Mountain Heaths
		14.1 Vegetation Formation Heath and Its Distribution in Europe
		14.2 Origin and Land-Use History of Heathland
		14.3 Ecology and Dynamics of Heathland
			14.3.1 Climate, Soil, Vegetation, and Fauna
			14.3.2 Development Phases of Calluna Heaths
		14.4 Reasons for the Restoration of Heathland
		14.5 Restoration Measures
			14.5.1 Restoration and Management of Dry Sandy Lowland Heaths
			14.5.2 Restoration of Wet Lowland Heaths
			14.5.3 Restoration of Coastal Heaths
		14.6 Particular Challenges for the Restoration and Management of Heaths
		14.7 Case Study: Land Use and Nature Conservation Between Past, Present, and Future—Restoration of Mountain Heaths in the Hochsauerland
	15: Mesophilic, Wet, and Calcareous Grassland
		15.1 Land-Use History of Grassland in Central Europe
		15.2 A Short Glimpse into the Ecology of Grassland
		15.3 Degradation of Grassland
		15.4 Ecosystem Services of Extensively Used, Species-Rich Grassland
		15.5 Initiatives and Environmental Programmes for the Restoration of Species-Rich Grassland
		15.6 Measures to Restore Grassland Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
			15.6.1 Restoration of Grassland After Other Intermediate Land Uses
			15.6.2 Grassland Restoration by Mowing, Grazing, and Shrub Removal
			15.6.3 Topsoil Removal and Inversion
			15.6.4 Lowering the Nutrient Level After Eutrophication (Aushagerung)
			15.6.5 Rewetting for the Restoration of Wet Grassland
			15.6.6 Re-introduction of Target Species and Diaspore Transfer
			15.6.7 Inoculation with Mycorrhizal Fungi
		15.7 Case Study: Grassland Restoration in the Rhön Biosphere Reserve—An Initiative for Cultural Landscape and Regional Rural Development
	16: Coastal and Inland Sandy Dry Grassland
		16.1 Occurrence and Historical Development of Sandy Sites in Central Europe
			16.1.1 Coastal Dunes
			16.1.2 Inland Sand Ecosystems
		16.2 Ecology and Dynamics of Sandy Dry Grassland
		16.3 Protection of Species, Habitats, and the Cultural Landscape and Reasons for Grassland Restoration
		16.4 Restoration Strategies and Measures for Open Sand Habitats
			16.4.1 Grazing
			16.4.2 Topsoil Removal and Inversion
			16.4.3 Application of Low-Nutrient Deep Sand
			16.4.4 Long-Term Nutrient Removal (Aushagerung)
			16.4.5 Manual and Mechanical Diaspore Transfer of Target Species
			16.4.6 Allowing for Natural Dynamics
		16.5 Case Study: The Former Military Training Area Döberitz—Megaherbivores and Sheep Replace Military Tanks
	17: Species-Rich Arable Land
		17.1 History: From a Sea of Flowers to a High-Performance Field
		17.2 Flora, Fauna, and Vegetation of Arable Land
		17.3 Nature Conservation and Restoration Strategies: Species-Rich Protective Fields and Marginal Strips
		17.4 Case Study: Extensification for the Restoration of Species-Rich Arable Land in North-Eastern Germany
	18: Traditional Agroforestry Systems
		18.1 Traditional Orchards (Streuobstwiesen)
			18.1.1 Land-Use History and Current Status
			18.1.2 Ecosystem Services and Nature Conservation
			18.1.3 Conservation and Restoration Initiatives
			18.1.4 Case Study: Europe Promotes Bird Conservation in Orchards in Baden-Württemberg
		18.2 Larch Meadows and Pastures in the Alps
			18.2.1 Occurrence and Land Use
			18.2.2 Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity and Carbon Storage
			18.2.3 Maintaining an Element of the Traditional Cultural Landscape
		18.3 Tree Meadows in Scandinavia and the Baltic Region
	19: Urban Ecosystems
		19.1 Ecological Characteristics of Urban Ecosystems
		19.2 Urban Environment and Human Health
		19.3 Motivation and National and International Initiatives for the Restoration of Urban Nature
		19.4 Restoration Measures in Urban Environments
		19.5 New Approaches to Urban Greening and the Restoration of Urban Nature
		19.6 International Perspective on Sustainable Urban Development
		19.7 Case Study: Wilderness in the City Centre—The Schöneberger Südgelände in Berlin
	20: Mining Sites and Landfills
		20.1 Ecological Characteristics of Mining Sites and Post-Mining Areas
			20.1.1 Area Size
			20.1.2 Geomorphology
			20.1.3 Geology and Soils
			20.1.4 Water Balance and Water Quality
			20.1.5 Flora, Fauna, and Vegetation
		20.2 Planning and Legal Framework for the Restoration of Mining Sites
		20.3 Passive and Active Ecosystem Restoration on Mining Sites
		20.4 Restoration of Mining Heaps
		20.5 Restoration of Landfills
		20.6 Case Study: Chalk Quarries on the Island of Rügen—Anthropogenic Diversity of Species and Habitats
III: Ecosystem Restoration Serving Nature and Humans: Aspects from the Social Sciences and Humanities
	21: Reasons and Motivations for Ecosystem Restoration
		21.1 Environmental Facts and Figures
		21.2 Degradation and Ecosystem Services: Costs and Benefits
		21.3 Legal Obligations and International Conventions and Agreements
			21.3.1 National Requirements
			21.3.2 International Conventions and Agreements
		21.4 Justification and Motivation Derived From Environmental Ethics, Religion, and Emotions
	22: Actors and Stakeholders and Their Role in Ecosystem Restoration: Conflict Resolution and Acceptance Through Participation
		22.1 Actor and Stakeholder Analysis
		22.2 Actors and Stakeholders in Nature Conservation and Ecosystem Restoration
		22.3 Lack of Acceptance as a Limiting Factor of Ecosystem Restoration
			22.3.1 Re-introduction of Large Carnivores
			22.3.2 Rejection of Natural Processes
			22.3.3 Promoting Acceptance Through Information
		22.4 Science and Practice Pull Together: Transdisciplinary Approaches
	23: Restoration Economy: Costs and Benefits
		23.1 Methods for the Assessment of Costs and Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration
			23.1.1 Market Price and Cost-Based Methods
			23.1.2 Methods for the Economic Valuation of Non-market Goods
			23.1.3 Habitat and Resource Equivalency Analysis
			23.1.4 Benefit Transfer
		23.2 Opportunity Costs
		23.3 Comprehensive Cost-Benefit Analysis: From Degradation to Restoration
		23.4 What Factors Influence Restoration Costs?
		23.5 Funding Sources for Ecosystem Restoration
		23.6 Costs and Benefits of Ecosystem Restoration with Examples from Europe
			23.6.1 Grassland Restoration: Introduction of Target Species
			23.6.2 Heathland Restoration and Management in North-West Germany
			23.6.3 Grazing for the Restoration and Management of Open-Land Habitats
			23.6.4 Ecosystem Restoration for Climate Protection
			23.6.5 Wild and Honey Bees as Pollinators in Agriculture
		23.7 First Calculate Costs and Benefits, Then Act
	24: Norms and Values in Ecosystem Restoration
		24.1 Environmental Ethics and Implications for Ecosystem Restoration
			24.1.1 Faking Nature? Criticism on Ecosystem Restoration From Environmental Ethics
		24.2 Ecosystem Restoration as an Implementation of Strong Sustainability
		24.3 Traditional Ecological Knowledge
		24.4 Environmental Anthropology
		24.5 Ecosystem Restoration as Active Responsibility for Creation
		24.6 Restoration Measures Put to the Ethical Test Bench
			24.6.1 Application of Pesticides in Ecosystem Restoration
			24.6.2 Controlled Burning to Restore and Preserve Open Land
			24.6.3 Topsoil Removal
		24.7 Non-native Organisms and Xenophobia
IV: Synthesis
	25: Conclusions and Outlook
		25.1 Limiting Factors for Ecosystem Restoration
		25.2 Degradation in the Long Term and Restoration in the Short Term?
		25.3 Restoration of Eutrophicated Terrestrial and Aquatic Habitats: A Sisyphean Task?
		25.4 Limits to Planability, Uncertainties, and the Unforeseen: Allowing for More Dynamics
		25.5 Ecosystem Restoration in the Light of Current Trends
		25.6 Ecosystem Restoration at Any Price?
		25.7 Scientific Knowledge, Knowledge Transfer, and Socio-Political Decisions
		25.8 Final Conclusion
Appendix: List of Species
	List of Animal Species Mentioned in the Book
	List of Plant Species Mentioned in the Book
	List of Fungi, Lichens, Bacteria, Viruses, and Other Species Mentioned in the Book
References