Residential Microgrids and Rural Electrifications

Front Cover
Residential Microgrids and Rural Electrifications
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Microgrids planning for residential electrification in rural areas
	Chapter Outline
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Microgrids in rural areas
		1.2.1 Microgrids structure
		1.2.2 Microgrid configurations
		1.2.3 Microgrids components
			1.2.3.1 Diesel generators
			1.2.3.2 Renewable energy resources
			1.2.3.3 Energy storage systems
		1.2.4 Issues related to microgrids in rural areas
	1.3 Planning of residential microgrids
		1.3.1 Problem identification
		1.3.2 Input data
			1.3.2.1 Weather data
			1.3.2.2 Load data
			1.3.2.3 Electricity rates and grid technical data
			1.3.2.4 Technical and economic data of components
		1.3.3 Objective functions
			1.3.3.1 Economic objectives
			1.3.3.2 Technical objectives
		1.3.4 Design constraints
			1.3.4.1 Generation storage component constraints
			1.3.4.2 Technical constraints
		1.3.5 How to solve the microgrids planning problem
			1.3.5.1 Algorithms
			1.3.5.2 Software
	1.4 HOMER software
		1.4.1 Software introduction
		1.4.2 Equipment models in HOMER
			1.4.2.1 Load model
			1.4.2.2 Generation units model
			1.4.2.3 Energy storage model
		1.4.3 Optimization in HOMER
		1.4.4 Output results by HOMER
		1.4.5 Sensitivity analysis in HOMER
		1.4.6 HOMER deficiencies
	1.5 Conclusion
	References
2 Overview of microgrids in the modern digital age: an introduction and fundamentals
	Chapter Outline
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Microgrid fundamentals
	2.3 Microgrid impacts
	2.4 Microgrid for rural electrification
	2.5 Discussion
	2.6 Trends
	2.7 Conclusions
	References
3 Sources of a microgrid for residential systems and rural electrification
	Chapter Outline
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Solar photovoltaic cells
		3.2.1 Generation of charge carriers because of the absorption of photons within the materials that develop a junction
		3.2.2 Resulting separation of photo-generated charge carriers within the junction
		3.2.3 Assortment of photo-generated charge carriers at the terminals of the junction
		3.2.4 Components of solar PV system
			3.2.4.1 Solar panels
		3.2.5 Types of solar panels
		3.2.6 Solar inverter
		3.2.7 Types of solar inverters
		3.2.8 Batteries
		3.2.9 Charge controllers
		3.2.10 Advantages of solar energy
	3.3 Biomass and biochemical
		3.3.1 Thermochemical
		3.3.2 Biochemical
			3.3.2.1 Aerobic digestion
			3.3.2.2 Anaerobic digestion
			3.3.2.3 Biophotolysis
		3.3.3 Agrochemical
			3.3.3.1 Fuel extraction
			3.3.3.2 Biodiesel and esterification
		3.3.4 Benefits of biomass energy
		3.3.5 Hydropower plant
		3.3.6 Water turbine
			3.3.6.1 Impulse turbine
			3.3.6.2 Pelton wheel
			3.3.6.3 Cross-flow
			3.3.6.4 Reaction turbine
			3.3.6.5 Propeller
		3.3.7 Advantages of hydropower
	3.4 Fuel cell technology
		3.4.1 Fuel cell application in microgrid arrangements
			3.4.1.1 Grid-connected
			3.4.1.2 Grid-parallel
			3.4.1.3 Direct current microgrid
		3.4.2 Comparison of FC microgrid application
		3.4.3 Advantages of FCs in microgrids
	3.5 Wind power
		3.5.1 Wind turbine components
		3.5.2 Application of wind power in microgrids
		3.5.3 Advantages of wind power
	3.6 Diesel generator
		3.6.1 Parts of a diesel generator
		3.6.2 Advantages of a diesel generator
	3.7 Conclusion
	References
4 Overview of sources of microgrids for residential and rural electrification: a panorama in the modern age
	Chapter Outline
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Microgrid concepts
	4.3 Solar energy
	4.4 Discussion
	4.5 Trends
	4.6 Conclusions
	References
5 Design of microgrids for rural electrification
	Chapter Outline
	5.1 DC microgrid
		5.1.1 Overview of the system and working methods
		5.1.2 DC-DC boost converter design
	5.2 Logic behind the system
		5.2.1 Source side management approach
		5.2.2 Demand-side management approach
	5.3 Results and discussion
		5.3.1 Source-side management
	5.4 AC microgrid
		5.4.1 Introduction to the system
		5.4.2 Indicators of sustainability
	5.5 Hybrid microgrid
	5.6 Case study of a hybrid microgrid system
		5.6.1 Electrical load survey of the communities
		5.6.2 Size of the solar energy system
		5.6.3 Inverter sizing and system voltage
		5.6.4 Sizing the PV array
		5.6.5 Battery energy storage system
		5.6.6 Charge controller sizing
		5.6.7 PV energy system installation and commissioning
		5.6.8 Installation of electric poles
		5.6.9 Motorized borehole for irrigation purposes
		5.6.10 Metering of customers
		5.6.11 Social and economic impact of the project on the communities
	5.7 Conclusion
	References
6 Stand-alone microgrid concept for rural electrification: a review
	Chapter Outline
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Renewable energy: the clean facts
	6.3 Microgrid: a complete rural electrification solution
		6.3.1 Electrification in remote regions
		6.3.2 Benefits and drawbacks of a photovoltaic system
		6.3.3 Solar panel flexibility for a rural home
	6.4 Example
	6.5 India’s latest rural electrification schemes and initiatives
		6.5.1 Scheme 1: power for all
		6.5.2 Scheme 2: Saubhagya
		6.5.3 Scheme 3: DeenDayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana
	6.6 Rural electrification for home and industry
		6.6.1 Issues in microgrids
			6.6.1.1 Power quality
			6.6.1.2 Stability
	6.7 Modeling of a solar cell
	6.8 Battery storage
	6.9 Simulation analysis of the photovoltaic connected load
	6.10 Conclusion
	References
7 Rural and residential microgrids: concepts, status quo, model, and application
	Chapter Outline
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 What is energy poverty?
		7.2.1 Indexes to evaluate energy poverty in Europe
			7.2.1.1 The 10% index
			7.2.1.2 Minimum income standard–based index
			7.2.1.3 Low-income–high-cost index
	7.3 The 5D evolution in energy systems
		7.3.1 Decentralization
		7.3.2 Decarbonization
		7.3.3 Democratization
		7.3.4 Deregulation
		7.3.5 Digitalization
	7.4 The role of microgrids in the 5D evolution in energy systems and fighting energy poverty
		7.4.1 Microgrids and decentralization
		7.4.2 Microgrids and decarbonization
		7.4.3 Microgrids and democratization
		7.4.4 Microgrids and digitalization
		7.4.5 Microgrids and deregulation
		7.4.6 The role of microgrids in fighting energy poverty
	7.5 Rural versus residential microgrids
		7.5.1 Definition of microgrids
		7.5.2 Types of microgrids
			7.5.2.1 Classification of microgrids based on electrical characteristics
			7.5.2.2 Classification of microgrids based on deployment
	7.6 Technical and economic benefits of microgrids
		7.6.1 Environmental issues
		7.6.2 Investment and operation issues
		7.6.3 Power quality and reliability improvements
		7.6.4 Economic advantages
		7.6.5 Market benefits
	7.7 Challenges of microgrids
		7.7.1 High costs of distributed energy resources
		7.7.2 Technical problems
		7.7.3 Market monopoly
	7.8 Load characteristics of microgrids
	7.9 Microgrid configuration
	7.10 Literature review
	7.11 Energy management of microgrids
		7.11.1 Mathematical modeling
			7.11.1.1 Grid-connected operation
			7.11.1.2 Islanded mode operation
		7.11.2 Optimization approach
	7.12 Concluding remarks and outlook
	References
8 Load prediction of rural area Nordic holiday resorts for microgrid development
	Chapter Outline
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Load profile behavior
		8.2.1 Time-series analysis of load profile
	8.3 Rural area holiday resorts load analysis
	8.4 Combination of forecasts
	8.5 Learning systems and ensemble methods
	8.6 Tree learning as variance reduction
		8.6.1 Random forest regression
	8.7 Case study: Rural area electric energy load prediction
	8.8 Double-stacking algorithm
		8.8.1 First step: Time organizing
		8.8.2 Second step: Algorithm development and hyperparameter tuning
		8.8.3 Third step: Choosing first layer estimators
	8.9 Results and discussion
		8.9.1 Case study: Nordic rural area
	8.10 Conclusion
	References
9 Novel power management strategy for a solar biomass off-grid power system
	Chapter Outline
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Modeling
		9.2.1 Dataset
		9.2.2 Solar photovoltaic system
		9.2.3 Biomass power system
			9.2.3.1 Calorific value
			9.2.3.2 Producer gas
		9.2.4 Inverter
		9.2.5 Design of battery bank
	9.3 Problem formulation
		9.3.1 Loss of power supply probability
		9.3.2 Dump load
		9.3.3 Cost of electricity
	9.4 Optimization
		9.4.1 Firefly algorithm
		9.4.2 Invasive weed optimization
	9.5 Results and discussion
		9.5.1 Strategies for power management
			9.5.1.1 Running the system by photovoltaic alone
			9.5.1.2 Running the system by biomass alone
			9.5.1.3 Running the system by both photovoltaic and biomass
			9.5.1.4 Practical case with photovoltaic during the day and biomass during the night
		9.5.2 Comparative analysis of optimization algorithms
			9.5.2.1 Optimizing the loss of power supply probability
			9.5.2.2 Optimizing the dump load
			9.5.2.3 Optimizing the cost of electricity
		9.5.3 Sensitivity analysis
			9.5.3.1 Variation in number of houses
			9.5.3.2 Variation in number of batteries
			9.5.3.3 Variation in biomass feedstock
				9.5.3.3.1 Wheat straw
				9.5.3.3.2 Coconut shells
				9.5.3.3.3 Crushed sugarcane
				9.5.3.3.4 Corncobs
				9.5.3.3.5 Rice hulls
				9.5.3.3.6 Cotton stalks
			9.5.3.4 Variation in penetration level
	9.6 Conclusion
	References
10 Modeling and analysis of an islanded hybrid microgrid for remote off-grid communities
	Chapter Outline
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Site location: study area
		10.2.1 Location of case study
		10.2.2 Load data of site
		10.2.3 Solar photovoltaic irradiance data of site
	10.3 Microgrid modeling and frequency stability study under dynamic conditions
		10.3.1 Microgrid parameters
		10.3.2 Primary frequency response through the battery
	10.4 Economic analysis through HOMER
	10.5 Results and discussion
		10.5.1 Frequency response
		10.5.2 HOMER cost of energy analysis
	10.6 Conclusion
	References
11 Performance analysis of a DC stand-alone microgrid with an efficient energy management system
	Chapter Outline
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 DC microgrid architecture
		11.2.1 Energy management system
	11.3 Simulation and analysis
		11.3.1 Scenario 1: system with PV, battery, and load
			11.3.1.1 Fixed load and varying input
			11.3.1.2 Varying load and fixed input
			11.3.1.3 Varying load and varying input
		11.3.2 Scenario 2: system with wind power, battery, and load
			11.3.2.1 Fixed load and varying input
			11.3.2.2 Varying load and fixed input
			11.3.2.3 Varying load and varying input
		11.3.3 Scenario 3: system with PV power, wind power, battery, and load
			11.3.3.1 Load is met by renewable resources only (PL=Ppv+PW)
			11.3.3.2 Excess power from renewable sources is stored in battery (Ppv+Pw=PL+PB)
			11.3.3.3 Load is met by the renewable sources and battery storage (PL=Ppv+PW+PB)
		11.3.4 Load priority based on the SOC of battery
	11.4 Conclusion
	References
12 Microgrids with Distributed Generation and Electric Vehicles
	Chapter Outline
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Microgrid
	12.3 Types of microgrids
		12.3.1 Hybrid microgrid with an AC bus system
		12.3.2 Hybrid microgrid with a DC bus system
		12.3.3 Hybrid microgrid with an AC and DC bus system
	12.4 Applications and benefits of microgrids
		12.4.1 Applications
		12.4.2 Benefits
	12.5 The electric vehicle market
	12.6 Microgrids with electric vehicle charging
	12.7 Power management and control for hybrid microgrids
		12.7.1 Hybrid microgrid with an AC bus system
		12.7.2 Hybrid microgrid with a DC bus system
		12.7.3 Hybrid microgrid with an AC and DC bus system
	12.8 Significant ideas for the enhancement of a microgrid
		12.8.1 Infrastructure of a hybrid microgrid with an AC and DC bus system
		12.8.2 Power quality problems
		12.8.3 Parallel operation of interfacing or interlinking converters
		12.8.4 Communication system implementation in a microgrid
		12.8.5 Transient operating mode
		12.8.6 Semiconductor device implementation in a microgrid
		12.8.7 Cost of the system
		12.8.8 Future of charging stations
	12.9 Conclusion
	References
13 Intelligent algorithms for microgrid energy management systems
	Chapter Outline
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Overview of optimization algorithms
		13.2.1 Important parameters for the energy management system of the grid
		13.2.2 Genetic algorithm
			13.2.2.1 Minimizing the cost of energy production using a genetic algorithm
				13.2.2.1.1 Cost of the photovoltaic system
				13.2.2.1.2 Cost of the battery system
				13.2.2.1.3 Cost of the wind turbine
				13.2.2.1.4 Factors of constraints
				13.2.2.1.5 Simulation results
		13.2.3 Fish swarm optimization algorithm
			13.2.3.1 Minimization of cost using the fish swarm optimization algorithm
			13.2.3.2 Simulation results
		13.2.4 Bat algorithm
		13.2.5 Most valuable player algorithm
		13.2.6 Other algorithms
	13.3 Conclusion
	References
14 Electrical safety for residential and rural microgrids
	Chapter Outline
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Technical terms
		14.2.1 AC and DC
		14.2.2 Arc flash
		14.2.3 Authorized person or qualified electrical workers
		14.2.4 Earthing, grounding, and bonding
		14.2.5 Cardiac arrest
		14.2.6 Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
		14.2.7 Confined space
		14.2.8 Energize
		14.2.9 Hazard
		14.2.10 Isolated or deenergized
		14.2.11 Lockout-tagout
		14.2.12 Permit to work
		14.2.13 Step voltage
		14.2.14 Touch voltage
		14.2.15 Transferred voltage
		14.2.16 Ground electrode
	14.3 Causes of electrical accidents
	14.4 Effects of electrical current
	14.5 Significance of body resistance and current
		14.5.1 Case study for microgrid fault analysis
	14.6 Earthing system in microgrids
		14.6.1 Estimation of earthing system
	14.7 Hazard mitigation methods
	14.8 Electrical safety audit
	14.9 Conclusions
	References
Index
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