Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems

Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems......Page 4
CONTENTS......Page 10
Preface......Page 20
1.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits......Page 24
1.2.1 Charge......Page 25
1.2.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law......Page 26
1.2.4 Voltage......Page 28
1.2.6 Power......Page 30
1.2.8 Summary of Principal Electrical Quantities......Page 31
1.3.1 Ideal Voltage Source......Page 32
1.4.1 Ohm’s Law......Page 33
1.4.2 Resistors in Series......Page 35
1.4.3 Resistors in Parallel......Page 36
1.4.4 The Voltage Divider......Page 38
1.4.5 Wire Resistance......Page 39
1.5 Capacitance......Page 44
1.6.1 Electromagnetism......Page 47
1.6.2 Magnetic Circuits......Page 49
1.7.1 Physics of Inductors......Page 52
1.7.2 Circuit Relationships for Inductors......Page 56
1.8 Transformers......Page 59
1.8.1 Ideal Transformers......Page 60
1.8.2 Magnetization Losses......Page 63
Problems......Page 67
2.1 Effective Values of Voltage and Current......Page 74
2.2.1 Ideal Resistors......Page 78
2.2.2 Idealized Capacitors......Page 80
2.2.3 Idealized Inductors......Page 82
2.3 Power Factor......Page 84
2.4 The Power Triangle and Power Factor Correction......Page 86
2.5 Three-Wire, Single-Phase Residential Wiring......Page 90
2.6 Three-Phase Systems......Page 92
2.6.1 Balanced, Wye-Connected Systems......Page 93
2.6.2 Delta-Connected, Three-Phase Systems......Page 99
2.7 Power Supplies......Page 100
2.7.1 Linear Power Supplies......Page 101
2.7.2 Switching Power Supplies......Page 105
2.8 Power Quality......Page 109
2.8.1 Introduction to Harmonics......Page 110
2.8.2 Total Harmonic Distortion......Page 115
2.8.3 Harmonics and Voltage Notching......Page 117
2.8.4 Harmonics and Overloaded Neutrals......Page 118
2.8.5 Harmonics in Transformers......Page 121
Problems......Page 122
3 The Electric Power Industry......Page 130
3.1 The Early Pioneers: Edison, Westinghouse, and Insull......Page 131
3.2.1 Utilities and Nonutilities......Page 134
3.2.2 Industry Statistics......Page 135
3.3 Polyphase Synchronous Generators......Page 140
3.3.1 A Simple Generator......Page 141
3.3.2 Single-Phase Synchronous Generators......Page 142
3.3.3 Three-Phase Synchronous Generators......Page 144
3.4 Carnot Efficiency for Heat Engines......Page 145
3.4.2 Entropy and the Carnot Heat Engine......Page 146
3.5.1 Basic Steam Power Plants......Page 150
3.5.2 Coal-Fired Steam Power Plants......Page 151
3.6 Combustion Gas Turbines......Page 154
3.6.1 Basic Gas Turbine......Page 155
3.7 Combined-Cycle Power Plants......Page 156
3.8 Gas Turbines and Combined-Cycle Cogeneration......Page 157
3.9 Baseload, Intermediate and Peaking Power Plants......Page 158
3.9.1 Screening Curves......Page 160
3.9.2 Load–Duration Curves......Page 164
3.10 Transmission and Distribution......Page 168
3.10.1 The National Transmission Grid......Page 169
3.10.2 Transmission Lines......Page 171
3.11 The Regulatory Side of Electric Power......Page 174
3.11.1 The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 (PUHCA)......Page 175
3.11.3 The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct)......Page 176
3.11.5 Utilities and Nonutility Generators......Page 177
3.12 The Emergence of Competitive Markets......Page 178
3.12.1 Technology Motivating Restructuring......Page 179
3.12.2 California Begins to Restructure......Page 180
3.12.3 Collapse of "Deregulation” in California......Page 183
References......Page 185
Problems......Page 186
4.1 Electricity Generation in Transition......Page 192
4.2 Distributed Generation with Fossil Fuels......Page 193
4.2.1 HHV and LHV......Page 194
4.2.2 Microcombustion Turbines......Page 195
4.2.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines......Page 200
4.2.4 Stirling Engines......Page 203
4.3.1 Solar Dish/Stirling Power Systems......Page 206
4.3.2 Parabolic Troughs......Page 208
4.3.3 Solar Central Receiver Systems......Page 212
4.3.4 Some Comparisons of Concentrating Solar Power Systems......Page 213
4.4 Biomass for Electricity......Page 215
4.5 Micro-Hydropower Systems......Page 217
4.5.1 Power From a Micro-Hydro Plant......Page 218
4.5.2 Pipe Losses......Page 221
4.5.3 Measuring Flow......Page 224
4.5.4 Turbines......Page 226
4.5.5 Electrical Aspects of Micro-Hydro......Page 228
4.6 Fuel Cells......Page 229
4.6.1 Historical Development......Page 231
4.6.2 Basic Operation of Fuel Cells......Page 232
4.6.3 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics: Enthalpy......Page 233
4.6.4 Entropy and the Theoretical Efficiency of Fuel Cells......Page 236
4.6.5 Gibbs Free Energy and Fuel Cell Efficiency......Page 240
4.6.6 Electrical Output of an Ideal Cell......Page 241
4.6.7 Electrical Characteristics of Real Fuel Cells......Page 242
4.6.8 Types of Fuel Cells......Page 244
4.6.9 Hydrogen Production......Page 247
References......Page 251
Problems......Page 252
5.1 Distributed Resources (DR)......Page 254
5.2.1 Standard Residential Rates......Page 256
5.2.2 Residential Time-of-Use (TOU) Rates......Page 258
5.2.3 Demand Charges......Page 259
5.2.4 Demand Charges with a Ratchet Adjustment......Page 260
5.2.5 Load Factor......Page 262
5.3 Energy Economics......Page 263
5.3.2 Initial (Simple) Rate-of-Return......Page 264
5.3.3 Net Present Value......Page 265
5.3.4 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)......Page 267
5.3.5 NPV and IRR with Fuel Escalation......Page 269
5.3.6 Annualizing the Investment......Page 271
5.3.7 Levelized Bus-Bar Costs......Page 274
5.3.8 Cash-Flow Analysis......Page 277
5.4 Energy Conservation Supply Curves......Page 279
5.5 Combined Heat and Power (CHP)......Page 283
5.5.1 Energy-efficiency Measures of Combined Heat and Power (Cogeneration)......Page 284
5.5.2 Impact of Usable Thermal Energy on CHP Economics......Page 287
5.5.3 Design Strategies for CHP......Page 292
5.6.1 Compressive Refrigeration......Page 294
5.6.2 Heat Pumps......Page 297
5.6.3 Absorption Cooling......Page 300
5.6.4 Desiccant Dehumidification......Page 301
5.7 Distributed Benefits......Page 303
5.7.1 Option Values......Page 304
5.7.2 Distribution Cost Deferral......Page 309
5.7.3 Electrical Engineering Cost Benefits......Page 310
5.7.4 Reliability Benefits......Page 311
5.7.5 Emissions Benefits......Page 312
5.8 Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) and Demand-Side Management (DSM)......Page 314
5.8.1 Disincentives Caused by Traditional Rate-Making......Page 315
5.8.2 Necessary Conditions for Successful DSM Programs......Page 316
5.8.3 Cost Effectiveness Measures of DSM......Page 318
5.8.4 Achievements of DSM......Page 321
Problems......Page 323
6.1 Historical Development of Wind Power......Page 330
6.2 Types of Wind Turbines......Page 332
6.3 Power in the Wind......Page 335
6.3.1 Temperature Correction for Air Density......Page 337
6.3.2 Altitude Correction for Air Density......Page 339
6.4 Impact of Tower Height......Page 342
6.5 Maximum Rotor Efficiency......Page 346
6.6.1 Synchronous Generators......Page 351
6.6.2 The Asynchronous Induction Generator......Page 352
6.7.1 Importance of Variable Rotor Speeds......Page 358
6.7.2 Pole-Changing Induction Generators......Page 359
6.7.5 Indirect Grid Connection Systems......Page 360
6.8.1 Discrete Wind Histogram......Page 361
6.8.2 Wind Power Probability Density Functions......Page 365
6.8.3 Weibull and Rayleigh Statistics......Page 366
6.8.4 Average Power in the Wind with Rayleigh Statistics......Page 368
6.8.5 Wind Power Classifications and U.S. Potential......Page 370
6.9 Simple Estimates of Wind Turbine Energy......Page 372
6.9.1 Annual Energy Using Average Wind Turbine Efficiency......Page 373
6.9.2 Wind Farms......Page 374
6.10.1 Some Aerodynamics......Page 377
6.10.2 Idealized Wind Turbine Power Curve......Page 378
6.10.4 Wind Speed Cumulative Distribution Function......Page 380
6.10.5 Using Real Power Curves with Weibull Statistics......Page 384
6.10.6 Using Capacity Factor to Estimate Energy Produced......Page 390
6.11.1 Capital Costs and Annual Costs......Page 394
6.11.2 Annualized Cost of Electricity from Wind Turbines......Page 396
6.12 Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines......Page 400
References......Page 401
Problems......Page 402
7.1 The Solar Spectrum......Page 408
7.2 The Earth’s Orbit......Page 413
7.3 Altitude Angle of the Sun at Solar Noon......Page 414
7.4 Solar Position at any Time of Day......Page 418
7.5 Sun Path Diagrams for Shading Analysis......Page 421
7.6 Solar Time and Civil (Clock) Time......Page 425
7.7 Sunrise and Sunset......Page 427
7.8 Clear Sky Direct-Beam Radiation......Page 433
7.9.1 Direct-Beam Radiation......Page 436
7.9.2 Diffuse Radiation......Page 438
7.9.3 Reflected Radiation......Page 440
7.9.4 Tracking Systems......Page 442
7.10 Monthly Clear-Sky Insolation......Page 447
7.11 Solar Radiation Measurements......Page 451
7.12 Average Monthly Insolation......Page 454
Problems......Page 462
8.1 Introduction......Page 468
8.2.1 The Band Gap Energy......Page 471
8.2.2 The Solar Spectrum......Page 475
8.2.3 Band-Gap Impact on Photovoltaic Efficiency......Page 476
8.2.4 The p–n Junction......Page 478
8.2.5 The p–n Junction Diode......Page 481
8.3.1 The Simplest Equivalent Circuit for a Photovoltaic Cell......Page 483
8.3.2 A More Accurate Equivalent Circuit for a PV Cell......Page 487
8.4.1 From Cells to a Module......Page 491
8.4.2 From Modules to Arrays......Page 494
8.5 The PV I –V Curve Under Standard Test Conditions (STC)......Page 496
8.6 Impacts of Temperature and Insolation on I –V Curves......Page 498
8.7 Shading impacts on I–V curves......Page 500
8.7.1 Physics of Shading......Page 501
8.7.2 Bypass Diodes for Shade Mitigation......Page 504
8.8 Crystalline Silicon Technologies......Page 508
8.8.1 Single-Crystal Czochralski (CZ) Silicon......Page 509
8.8.2 Ribbon Silicon Technologies......Page 512
8.8.4 Crystalline Silicon Modules......Page 514
8.9 Thin-Film Photovoltaics......Page 515
8.9.1 Amorphous Silicon......Page 516
8.9.2 Gallium Arsenide and Indium Phosphide......Page 521
8.9.3 Cadmium Telluride......Page 522
8.9.4 Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS)......Page 523
References......Page 524
Problems......Page 525
9.1 Introduction to the Major Photovoltaic System Types......Page 528
9.2.1 Simple Resistive-Load I–V Curve......Page 531
9.2.2 DC Motor I–V Curve......Page 533
9.2.3 Battery I–V Curves......Page 535
9.2.4 Maximum Power Point Trackers......Page 537
9.2.5 Hourly I–V Curves......Page 541
9.3 Grid-Connected Systems......Page 544
9.3.1 Interfacing with the Utility......Page 546
9.3.2 DC and AC Rated Power......Page 548
9.3.3 The “Peak-Hours” Approach to Estimating PV Performance......Page 551
9.3.4 Capacity Factors for PV Grid-Connected Systems......Page 556
9.3.5 Grid-Connected System Sizing......Page 557
9.4.1 System Trade-offs......Page 565
9.4.2 Dollar-per-Watt Ambiguities......Page 567
9.4.3 Amortizing Costs......Page 568
9.5 Stand-Alone PV Systems......Page 573
9.5.1 Estimating the Load......Page 574
9.5.2 The Inverter and the System Voltage......Page 577
9.5.3 Batteries......Page 580
9.5.4 Basics of Lead-Acid Batteries......Page 582
9.5.5 Battery Storage Capacity......Page 585
9.5.6 Coulomb Efficiency Instead of Energy Efficiency......Page 588
9.5.7 Battery Sizing......Page 591
9.5.8 Blocking Diodes......Page 595
9.5.9 Sizing the PV Array......Page 598
9.5.10 Hybrid PV Systems......Page 602
9.5.11 Stand-Alone System Design Summary......Page 603
9.6 PV-Powered Water Pumping......Page 607
9.6.1 Hydraulic System Curves......Page 608
9.6.2 Hydraulic Pump Curves......Page 611
9.6.3 Hydraulic System Curve and Pump Curve Combined......Page 614
9.6.4 A Simple Directly Coupled PV–Pump Design Approach......Page 615
Problems......Page 618
APPENDICES......Page 628
APPENDIX A Useful Conversion Factors......Page 629
APPENDIX B Sun-Path Diagrams......Page 634
APPENDIX C Hourly Clear-Sky Insolation Tables......Page 638
APPENDIX D Monthly Clear-Sky Insolation Tables......Page 648
APPENDIX E Solar Insolation Tables by City......Page 652
APPENDIX F Maps of Solar Insolation......Page 664
Index......Page 670