Remediation of Heavy Metals (Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World, 70)

Foreword
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Analytical Methods for the Determination of Heavy Metals in Water
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Total Concentration and Speciation Analysis
	1.3 Health and Legislation
	1.4 Sample Preparation for Elemental Analysis of Heavy Metals
		1.4.1 Solid-Phase Extraction
			1.4.1.1 Classic Solid-Phase Extraction
				1.4.1.1.1 Modern Sorbents for Classic Solid-Phase Extraction
				1.4.1.1.2 Micro Solid-Phase Extraction
			1.4.1.2 Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction
				1.4.1.2.1 Dispersion Techniques
				1.4.1.2.2 Modern Sorbents for Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction and Dispersive Micro-Solid Phase Extraction
					Nanostructured Materials
					Hybrid Materials
			1.4.1.3 Magnetic Solid-Phase Extraction
				1.4.1.3.1 Advanced Magnetic Sorbents
		1.4.2 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
			1.4.2.1 Modern Solvents Used in Liquid-Liquid Extraction
				1.4.2.1.1 Non-ionic or Zwitterionic Surfactants
				1.4.2.1.2 Ionic Liquids
				1.4.2.1.3 Deep Eutectic Solvents
			1.4.2.2 Novel Liquid-Liquid Microextraction Techniques
				1.4.2.2.1 Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction Techniques
				1.4.2.2.2 In-Situ Phase Separation Techniques
				1.4.2.2.3 Cloud Point Extraction
				1.4.2.2.4 Non-dispersive Microextraction Techniques
			1.4.2.3 Liquid-Liquid Extraction in Flow Analysis
	1.5 Analytical Techniques for Heavy Metal Detection
		1.5.1 Spectroscopic Techniques
			1.5.1.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
			1.5.1.2 Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometry
			1.5.1.3 Atomic Emission Spectrometry
			1.5.1.4 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry
				1.5.1.4.1 Single Particle Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry
			1.5.1.5 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
			1.5.1.6 X-Ray Fluorescence
			1.5.1.7 UV-Vis Spectrophotometry
		1.5.2 Electrochemical Techniques
			1.5.2.1 Potentiostatic Techniques
				1.5.2.1.1 Amperometry
				1.5.2.1.2 Chronocoulometry
				1.5.2.1.3 Voltammetric Techniques
			1.5.2.2 Galvanostatic Stripping Chronopotentiometry
			1.5.2.3 Electrochemiluminescence
		1.5.3 Other Methods
			1.5.3.1 Ion Chromatography
			1.5.3.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
			1.5.3.3 Bio Methods
	1.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 2: Olive-Oil Waste for the Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Olive Tree Pruning as Biosorbent of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions
		2.2.1 Characterization
		2.2.2 Biosorption Tests
	2.3 Olive Stone as Biosorbent of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions
		2.3.1 Characterization
		2.3.2 Biosorption Tests
	2.4 Olive Pomace and Olive-Cake as Biosorbents of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions
		2.4.1 Characterization
		2.4.2 Biosorption Tests
	2.5 Other Valorization Opportunities for Olive-Oil Waste
	2.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 3: Metal Oxide Composites for Heavy Metal Ions Removal
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Issues in Environmental Remediation
	3.3 Different Types of Magnetic Sorbents
		3.3.1 Iron Oxide Modified Nanoparticle
		3.3.2 Zeolite
		3.3.3 Silica
		3.3.4 Polymer Functionalization
		3.3.5 Chitosan and Alginate
		3.3.6 Activated Carbon
		3.3.7 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) and Graphene
		3.3.8 Agricultural Wastes
	3.4 Case Studies
		3.4.1 Characterization
		3.4.2 Factors Affecting Sorption Processes
		3.4.3 Agro-Based Magnetic Biosorbents Recovery and Reusability
	3.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional Materials for Heavy Metal Removal
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Heavy Metal Ions Removal Mechanism
		4.2.1 Surface Complexation
		4.2.2 Van der Waals Interaction
		4.2.3 Ion Exchange
	4.3 Different Types of Two-Dimensional Material for Heavy Metal Removal
		4.3.1 Graphene-Based Two-Dimensional Materials
			4.3.1.1 Structure
			4.3.1.2 Graphene-Based Materials for Heavy Metal Removal
		4.3.2 Dichalcogenides
			4.3.2.1 Structure
			4.3.2.2 Molybdenum Disulfide for Heavy Metal Removal
		4.3.3 MXenes
			4.3.3.1 Structure
			4.3.3.2 MXenes for Heavy Metal Removal
		4.3.4 Clay Minerals
			4.3.4.1 Structure
			4.3.4.2 Clay Mineral for Heavy Metal Removal
		4.3.5 Layered Double Hydroxides
			4.3.5.1 Structure
			4.3.5.2 Layered Double Hydroxides for Heavy Metal Removal
		4.3.6 Layered Zeolites
			4.3.6.1 Structure
			4.3.6.2 Layered Zeolites for Heavy Metal Removal
		4.3.7 Other Two-Dimensional Materials
	4.4 Heavy Metal Removal Other than Adsorption
	4.5 Conclusions and Perspectives
	Appendix: List of Two-Dimensional Materials that Mentioned in this Chapter for Heavy Metal Removal and their Removal Capacities
	References
Chapter 5: Membranes for Heavy Metals Removal
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Electrodialysis
		5.2.1 Electrodialysis Applied to Metal Removal
		5.2.2 Principle
		5.2.3 Evaluation and Control Parameters
		5.2.4 Use in Electroplating Industry
			5.2.4.1 Zinc
			5.2.4.2 Chromium
			5.2.4.3 Copper
			5.2.4.4 Nickel
		5.2.5 Use in Mining and Mineral Processing Industry
		5.2.6 Final Considerations
	References
Chapter 6: Metal Oxides for Removal of Heavy Metal Ions
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Adsorption Methods
	6.3 Metal Oxides for the Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Water
		6.3.1 Titanium Dioxide
		6.3.2 Manganese Dioxide
		6.3.3 Iron Oxide
		6.3.4 Aluminum Oxide
		6.3.5 Binary Metal Oxides
	6.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7: Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchange Materials for Heavy Metal Removal from Water
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Ion Exchange Process
	7.3 Ion Exchange Materials
		7.3.1 Inorganic Ion Exchangers
		7.3.2 Organic Ion Exchangers
	7.4 Heavy Metal Removal with Ion Exchange Materials
		7.4.1 Lead (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers
		7.4.2 Mercury (II) Removal from Waste Water with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers
		7.4.3 Cadmium (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers
		7.4.4 Nickel (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers
		7.4.5 Chromium (III, VI) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers
		7.4.6 Copper (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers
		7.4.7 Zinc (II) Removal from Wastewater with Organic-Inorganic Ion Exchangers
	7.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8: Low-Cost Technology for Heavy Metal Cleaning from Water
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Sources and Impact
	8.3 Different Routes of Contamination
	8.4 Conventional Water Treatment Methods
		8.4.1 Preliminary Treatment
		8.4.2 Secondary Water Treatment
		8.4.3 Tertiary Water Treatment
		8.4.4 Membrane Filtration
	8.5 Advanced Technology for Heavy Metal Ion Removal
		8.5.1 Nano-Adsorption
		8.5.2 Molecularly-Imprinted Polymers
		8.5.3 Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH) and Covalent-Organic Framework (COF)
		8.5.4 Emerging Membrane Technologies
	8.6 Low-Cost and Biotechnological Approaches
		8.6.1 Biosorption
		8.6.2 Microbial Remediation
		8.6.3 Biotechnological Strategies
	8.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9: Use of Nanomaterials for Heavy Metal Remediation
	9.1 General Introduction
	9.2 Heavy Metals in the Environment
		9.2.1 Characteristics of Selected Heavy Metals
	9.3 Wastewater Treatment
	9.4 Nanomaterials
		9.4.1 Clay Minerals
		9.4.2 Layered Double Hydroxide and Their Mixed-Oxides Counterparts
		9.4.3 Zeolites
		9.4.4 Two-dimensional Early Transition Metal Carbides and Carbonitrides
		9.4.5 Metal Based Nanoparticles
			9.4.5.1 Zero-valent Metals
			9.4.5.2 Metal Oxides
		9.4.6 Carbon-based Materials
			9.4.6.1 Carbon Nanotubes
			9.4.6.2 Fullerenes
			9.4.6.3 Graphene
			9.4.6.4 Graphene Oxide
			9.4.6.5 Reduced Graphene Oxide
			9.4.6.6 Graphitic Carbon Nitride
		9.4.7 Metal Organic Frameworks
	9.5 Disadvantages of Using Nanomaterials
	9.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 10: Ecoengineered Approaches for the Remediation of Polluted River Ecosystems
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Occurrence of Pollutants, Emerging Contaminants and Their Riverine Fates
	10.3 Hazardous Effects of Water Contaminants on Aquatic and Terrestrial Biota
	10.4 Historic Concepts of River Bioremediation
	10.5 Physico-chemical River Remediation Methods
	10.6 Eco-engineered River Water Remediation Technologies
		10.6.1 Plant Based River Remediation Systems
			10.6.1.1 Constructed Wetlands
			10.6.1.2 Ecological Floating Wetlands, Beds and Islands
			10.6.1.3 Eco-tanks
			10.6.1.4 Bio-racks
		10.6.2 Microorganisms Based River Remediation Systems
			10.6.2.1 Biofilm Based Eco-engineered Treatment Systems
				10.6.2.1.1 Bio-filters in River Bioremediation
			10.6.2.2 Periphyton Based Technologies
	10.7 In Situ Emerging Integrated Systems for the River Bioremediation
	10.8 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 11: Ballast Water Definition, Components, Aquatic Invasive Species, Control and Management and Treatment Technologies
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Component of Ballast Water
	11.3 Aquatic Invasive Species
	11.4 The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments
	11.5 IMO Standards for Ballast Water Quality
	11.6 Management Options of Ballast Water
	11.7 Ballast Water Treatment Technologies
		11.7.1 Mechanical Treatment
		11.7.2 Physical Treatment
			11.7.2.1 Ultrasound and Cavitation
		11.7.3 Chemical Treatment
			11.7.3.1 Ozone
			11.7.3.2 Electrochlorination
	11.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12: Source, Pollution and Remediation of Carcinogenic Hexavalent Chromium from Industrial, Mining Effluents
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Sources of Chromium
		12.2.1 Natural Sources of Chromium
		12.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources
	12.3 Chromium Chemistry and its Bio-availability
		12.3.1 Hexavalent Chromium Toxicity and Regulation Strategies
		12.3.2 Health Risk Assessment of Hexavalent Chromium
	12.4 Treatment Methodologies for Removal of Carcinogenic Hexavalent Chromium from Water
		12.4.1 Chemical Reduction Followed by Precipitation
		12.4.2 Electrochemical Precipitation
		12.4.3 Ion Exchange and Membrane Filtration
		12.4.4 Adsorption and Biosorption
		12.4.5 Nanozero Valent Iron and Nanozero Valent Metal Technique
		12.4.6 Microbial Remediation of Hexavalent Chromium
		12.4.7 Selection of Suitable Technique for Hexavalent Chromium Removal from Water
	12.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13: Pesticides in Drinking Water and Removal Techniques
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Dispersal of Water on Earth
	13.3 Historical Perspectives
	13.4 Pesticide Classification
		13.4.1 Mode of Action
		13.4.2 Target Insect
		13.4.3 Chemical Composition
	13.5 Sources of Pesticide Pollutants
		13.5.1 Pesticides Water Pollution
	13.6 Pesticide Properties
		13.6.1 Adsorption
		13.6.2 Solubility
		13.6.3 Firmness
		13.6.4 Evaporation
	13.7 Pesticide Transportation
		13.7.1 Surface Runoff and Erosion
		13.7.2 Diffuse Source
		13.7.3 Spray Drift
		13.7.4 Leaching Processes
		13.7.5 Overland Flow
	13.8 Pesticide Poisoning
		13.8.1 Organophosphates
		13.8.2 Chlorpyrifos
		13.8.3 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
		13.8.4 Aldrin and Dieldrin
	13.9 Pesticide Treatment Technologies
		13.9.1 Membrane Technology
		13.9.2 Reverse Osmosis
			13.9.2.1 Microfiltration
			13.9.2.2 Ultrafiltration
			13.9.2.3 Nanofiltration
		13.9.3 Ion Exchange Resins
		13.9.4 Activated Carbon
		13.9.5 Phytoremediation
		13.9.6 Bioaugmentation
		13.9.7 Electrocoagulation
	13.10 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14: Opportunities and Challenges in Heavy Metal Removal from Water
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 The Available Techniques
		14.2.1 The Conventional Techniques
			14.2.1.1 Chemical Precipitation
			14.2.1.2 Membrane Filtration
			14.2.1.3 Ion-Exchange
			14.2.1.4 Adsorption
				14.2.1.4.1 Inorganic Adsorbent
				14.2.1.4.2 Bio-adsorbent
			14.2.1.5 Electrochemical Process
			14.2.1.6 Electrodialysis
		14.2.2 Advanced Techniques
			14.2.2.1 Nanotechnology Assisted Treatments
			14.2.2.2 Advanced Oxidation Process
			14.2.2.3 Membrane Adsorption
	14.3 Challenges
	14.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 15: Modification of Bagasse for Heavy Metal Removal Form Water
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Heavy Metal Removal from Wastewater Using Sugar Cane Bagasse
		15.2.1 Amine Treatment
		15.2.2 Acid Treatment
			15.2.2.1 Phthalic Acid
			15.2.2.2 Sulphuric Acid
			15.2.2.3 Phosphoric Acid
			15.2.2.4 Succinic Acid
		15.2.3 Base Treatment
	15.3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 16: Chelating Materials for the Removal of Heavy Metals from Water
	16.1 Introduction
		16.1.1 Water: Our Source of Life, with Heavy Metals
		16.1.2 Basic Principles of Metal Complexes and Chelates
	16.2 Chelating Materials Used for Heavy Metal Removal
		16.2.1 Chelating Membranes
		16.2.2 Chelating Nanomaterials
		16.2.3 Chelating Polymers
		16.2.4 Chelating Resins
		16.2.5 Chelating Surfactants
		16.2.6 Chitosan and Derivates
		16.2.7 Covalent and Metal Organic Frameworks
		16.2.8 Hybrid Materials for Chelating Metals
	16.3 Conclusions, Trends, and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 17: Sources of Heavy Metals Pollution
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Heavy Metals Emitting Source
		17.2.1 Point Source
		17.2.2 Non-point Source (Diffuse Source)
	17.3 Sources of Heavy Metals
		17.3.1 Natural Sources
			17.3.1.1 Weathering
				17.3.1.1.1 Factors that Influence the Release of Metals from Rocks
					pH
					Temperature
					Surface Area
					Other Factors
			17.3.1.2 Leaching
			17.3.1.3 Volcanic Eruption
			17.3.1.4 Seismic Activities
			17.3.1.5 Decaying of Organic Matter
		17.3.2 Anthropogenic Sources
			17.3.2.1 Agricultural Activities
				17.3.2.1.1 Pesticides
				17.3.2.1.2 Soil Enhancers
			17.3.2.2 Mining Activities
				17.3.2.2.1 Formation of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)
			17.3.2.3 Chemistry of Acid Mine Drainage and its Generation
				17.3.2.3.1 Chemistry of Pyrite Oxidation
			17.3.2.4 Chemical Composition of Acid Mine Drainage in South Africa
			17.3.2.5 Industrial Activities
				17.3.2.5.1 Mineral Exploration
				17.3.2.5.2 Energy Production
				17.3.2.5.3 Metallurgical Processes
				17.3.2.5.4 Run-Offs
			17.3.2.6 Approaches towards Source Mapping
		17.3.3 Toxicological Impacts of Heavy Metals
		17.3.4 Pollution Abatement Techniques
			17.3.4.1 Stabilization
			17.3.4.2 Phytoremediation
			17.3.4.3 Reaction Control
		17.3.5 Pollution Treatment Techniques
			17.3.5.1 Precipitation
			17.3.5.2 Adsorption
			17.3.5.3 Ion Exchange
			17.3.5.4 Filtration
			17.3.5.5 Phytoremediation
		17.3.6 Advances in Heavy Metals Management
			17.3.6.1 Valorization and Beneficiation
	17.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References