Red Wine Technology

Cover
Red Wine Technology
Copyright
List of Contributors
Prologue
1 Grape Maturity and Selection: Automatic Grape Selection
	1.1 Physicochemical Characteristics of Enological Interest
	1.2 Vineyard Approaches to Grape Selection and Harvest Date Determination
		1.2.1 Spatial Variability in Vineyard and Precision Viticulture Tools
		1.2.2 Grape Harvest and Selection in Vineyard
			1.2.2.1 Manual Grape Selection in Vineyard by Visual Inspection
			1.2.2.2 Selective Harvest of Different Parts of the Cluster
			1.2.2.3 Selective Harvest Based on Vineyard Area
			1.2.2.4 Time-Differential Harvest
			1.2.2.5 Toward Automated Grape Cluster Selection and Harvest
	1.3 Grape Selection in Winery
		1.3.1 Sorting Tables in Winery
		1.3.2 Size, Density, and Image Analysis Sorting Equipment
		1.3.3 New Perspectives for the Direct Grape Quality Evaluation and Selection in Winery
	References
2 Acidification and pH Control in Red Wines
	2.1 Importance of Acidic Fraction and pH Control in Red Wines
	2.2 Main Organic Acids in Must and Wine
		2.2.1 Tartaric Acid
		2.2.2 Malic Acid
		2.2.3 Citric Acid
		2.2.4 Lactic Acid
		2.2.5 Succinic Acid
		2.2.6 Acetic Acid
	2.3 Total Acidity and Wine pH
		2.3.1 Definition of pH
		2.3.2 Total Acidity, Titratable Acidity, and Real Acidity
		2.3.3 Variations of Acidity During Winemaking
	2.4 Acid–Base Equilibrium and Wine Buffer Capacity
		2.4.1 Acid–Base Equilibrium in Wine
		2.4.2 Buffer Capacity
	2.5 Traditional Strategies for Chemical Acidification
		2.5.1 Acidification by Blending with Musts or Wines From Low Maturity Grapes
		2.5.2 Acidification by Supplementation with Organic Acids
	2.6 Traditional Strategies for Chemical Deacidification
		2.6.1 Deacidification by Using Processing Aids
	2.7 New Technologies for pH Control
		2.7.1 Acidification and Deacidification by Electromembrane Techniques
		2.7.2 Ion Exchange Resins
	2.8 Laboratory Techniques for Measuring pH and Acidic Fraction
	Acknowledgments
	References
3 Maceration and Fermentation: New Technologies to Increase Extraction
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Tank Design for Red Winemaking
	3.3 Vessel Materials in Red Winemaking
	3.4 Kinetics of Extraction: The Effect of Temperature
	3.5 Mechanical Processes During Maceration
		3.5.1 Punch Downs and Pump Overs
		3.5.2 Rack and Return
		3.5.3 Submerged Cap
		3.5.4 Extended Maceration
	3.6 New Extraction Technologies
		3.6.1 High Hydrostatic Pressure
		3.6.2 Pulsed Electric Fields
		3.6.3 Ultrasounds
		3.6.4 Irradiation
		3.6.5 Pulsed Light
		3.6.6 Ozone and Electrolyzed Water
	3.7 Conclusions
	References
4 Use of Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts in Red Winemaking
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Yeast Ecology of Grape Berry
	4.3 Controlled Fermentation: The Role of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	4.4 Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts Features in Red Wine
		4.4.1 The Enzymatic Activities
		4.4.2 The Influence on the Aroma Profile
		4.4.3 The Polysaccharides Production and Color Stability
		4.4.4 Acidification and Deacidification Activities
		4.4.5 Reduction of Ethanol Content
		4.4.6 Antimicrobial Activities
	References
5 Yeast Biotechnology for Red Winemaking
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Yeast Diversity in Red Grapes and Musts
	5.3 Influence of Red Wine Technology on Saccharomyces Strains
		5.3.1 Saccharomyces Strains Dominate in the Wine Ecosystem; Saccharomyces Specific Niche
		5.3.2 Nitrogen Competition During Winemaking
		5.3.3 Redox and Temperature Effects in Red Winemaking
		5.3.4 Alcohol and Polyphenol Contents in Red Winemaking
		5.3.5 Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Red Wine Color
		5.3.6 Cell Wall Adsorption and Cell Lysis Effects on Anthocyanins
			5.3.6.1 Cell Wall Anthocyanins Adsorption
			5.3.6.2 β-Glycosidase Activity
			5.3.6.3 Polysaccharide Release
		5.3.7 Formation of Derived Anthocyanin Compounds by Yeast Fermentation Improves Color
	5.4 Saccharomyces Cerevisiae and Flavor Compounds
		5.4.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Synthesis of Flavor Compounds
		5.4.2 Saccharomyces Enzymes Effects on Flavor
	5.5 Practical Red Winemaking and Yeast Performance
		5.5.1 Use of Commercial Yeasts
		5.5.2 Saccharomyces-Lactic Acid Bacteria Interactions During Winemaking
		5.5.3 Aging and Microbial Stability
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
6 Malolactic Fermentation
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Lactic Acid Bacteria in Winemaking
		6.2.1 Oenococcus oeni
		6.2.2 Lactobacillus sp.
		6.2.3 Pediococcus sp.
	6.3 Factors Impacting LAB at Winery
		6.3.1 Ethanol
		6.3.2 pH
		6.3.3 Sulfur Dioxide
		6.3.4 Temperature
	6.4 Technological Strategies for Managing the MLF Performance
	6.5 Impact of MLF on Wine Organoleptic Properties
		6.5.1 Carbonyl Compounds
		6.5.2 Esters
		6.5.3 Monoterpenes
	6.6 Production of Off-Flavors by Lactic Acid Bacteria
		6.6.1 Volatile Sulfur Compounds
	6.7 Implications of LAB and MLF in Wine Safety
		6.7.1 Biogenic Amines
		6.7.2 Ethyl Carbamate
	6.8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
7 Yeast-Bacteria Coinoculation
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Objectives
		7.2.1 Controlling Wine Acidity
		7.2.2 Reducing Ethanol Yields and Volatile Acidity
		7.2.3 Controlling Microbial Spoilage
		7.2.4 Reducing Wine Toxins: Ochratoxin, Biogenic Amines, Ethyl Carbamate
		7.2.5 Modification of the Organoleptic Characteristics
	7.3 Interactions Between Wine Microorganisms
	Acknowledgments
	References
8 Molecular Tools to Analyze Microbial Populations in Red Wines
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Classical and Phenotypic Methods
	8.3 DNA-Based Methods
		8.3.1 Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA PCR Fingerprints (RAPD-PCR)
		8.3.2 PCR-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
		8.3.3 Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
		8.3.4 Gradient Gel Electrophoresis
		8.3.5 Quantitative Real-Time PCR (QPCR) and Reverse Transcription Quantitative Real-Time PCR (RT-qPCR)
		8.3.6 Capillary Electrophoresis Single-Strand Conformation Polymorphism
		8.3.7 Automated Ribosomal Intergenic Spacer Analysis
		8.3.8 Next Generation Sequencing
	8.4 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization–Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry
	8.5 Microbial Diversity Assessment Through Enzymes Detection
	8.6 Culture-Dependent Versus Culture-Independent Methods
	8.7 Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
9 Barrel Aging; Types of Wood
	9.1 Brief Historical Introduction
	9.2 The Main Tree Species Used in Cooperage
	9.3 The Main Forests Providing Wood For Cooperage
	9.4 The Concept of Wood Grain in Cooperage
	9.5 Obtaining the Staves: Hand Splitting and Sawing
	9.6 Drying Systems: Natural Seasoning and Artificial Drying
	9.7 Assembly and Toasting of the Barrel
	9.8 Types of Barrels and Barrel Parts
	9.9 What Happens to a Wine During Barrel Aging
	9.10 Volatile Substances Released by Oak Wood During Barrel Aging
	9.11 Phenolic Compounds Released by Oak Wood During Barrel Aging
	9.12 Oxygen Permeability of Oak Wood
	9.13 Influence of Wood Grain
	9.14 Influence of Botanical and Geographic Origin
	9.15 Influence of Natural Seasoning and Artificial Drying
	9.16 Influence of Toasting Level
	9.17 Influence of the Repeated Use of Barrels
	9.18 Barrel Aging Process
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
10 Emerging Technologies for Aging Wines: Use of Chips and Micro-Oxygenation
	10.1 Why Aging Wines in Barrels?
	10.2 The Micro-Oxygenation Technique
	10.3 Positive Factors of Using Micro-Oxygenation
		10.3.1 Incidence on Yeast Development During Alcoholic Fermentation
		10.3.2 Wine Chromatic Characteristics and Stability
		10.3.3 Improvement of Astringency and Mouthfeel
		10.3.4 Improvement of Wine Aroma and Reduction of Vegetal Characteristics
	10.4 The Application of the MOX Technique
	10.5 The Use of Oak Chips
	10.6 When and How Use Them
	10.7 Effect of Adding Oak Chips on Wine Characteristics
	10.8 Comparing the Effect of Chips or MOX With Aging Wine in Barrels
	10.9 The Combined Used of MOX+CHIPS
	10.10 Innovations in MOX and Chips Application
		10.10.1 Innovations in MOX
		10.10.2 Innovations in the Treatment With Chips
	References
	Further Reading
11 New Trends in Aging on Lees
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Use of Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts
	11.3 Accelerated Aging on Lees
	11.4 Lees Aromatization
	11.5 Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
12 Evolution of Proanthocyanidins During Grape Maturation, Winemaking, and Aging Process of Red Wines
	12.1 Proanthocyanidins: Composition, Content, and Evolution During Grape Maturation
		12.1.1 General Composition and Content of Proanthocyanidins in Grapes
		12.1.2 Evolution of Proanthocyanidins During Grape Maturation
	12.2 Evolution of Proanthocyanidins During Fermentative Maceration of Red Wines
	12.3 Changes on Proanthocyanidins During Red Wine Aging in Contact with Wood
		12.3.1 Natural Evolution of the Proanthocyanidins During Aging
		12.3.2 Effects of the Medium Factors on the Proanthocyanidin Evolution
		12.3.3 Wood Influence on Wine Proanthocyanidin Evolution
	12.4 Final Remarks
	References
13 Wine Color Evolution and Stability
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Anthocyanin Stability
		13.2.1 Chemical Structure of Anthocyanins
		13.2.2 Effect of pH
		13.2.3 Effect of the Temperature
		13.2.4 Effect of the Bisulfite
		13.2.5 Effect of Oxygen
	13.3 Copigmentation
		13.3.1 Factors Affecting Copigmentation
	13.4 Red Wine Color Evolution
		13.4.1 Anthocyanin Oxidation
		13.4.2 Formation of Anthocyanin Derivative Pigments
			13.4.2.1 Flavanol–Anthocyanin Condensation Products
			13.4.2.2 Pyranoanthocyanins
	13.5 Winemaking Practices for Stabilizing Red Wine Color
		13.5.1 Technological Tools to Enhance Copigmentation in Wines
		13.5.2 Effect of Polysaccharide–Anthocyanin Interaction
			13.5.2.1 Grape Skin Polysaccharides
			13.5.2.2 Yeast Mannoproteins
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
14 Polymeric Pigments in Red Wines
	Abbreviations
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Polymeric Pigments in Red Wines
		14.2.1 Anthocyanin-Derived Pigments Found in Red Grapes and Wines
		14.2.2 Anthocyanin-Derived Pigments Formed in Red Wines During Aging
		14.2.3 A-Type Vitisin-Derived Pigments Formed in Red Wines During Aging
	14.3 Analysis of Polymeric Pigments
	14.4 Stability in Solution and Influence in Red Wine Color
	14.5 Conclusion
	References
15 Spoilage Yeasts in Red Wines
	15.1 Introduction
		15.1.1 Concept of Spoilage Yeasts
		15.1.2 Significance and Occurrence of Wine-Related Yeast Species
			15.1.2.1 Grapes and Grape Juices
			15.1.2.2 Wine Fermentation
			15.1.2.3 Bulk and Bottled Wine
		15.1.3 Factors Promoting the Dissemination of Spoilage Yeasts
	15.2 Description of the Main Yeast Genera/Species Involved in Wine Spoilage
		15.2.1 Film-Forming Species
		15.2.2 Zygosaccharomyces bailii and Related Species
		15.2.3 Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Related Species
		15.2.4 Saccharomycodes ludwigii and Schizosaccharomyces pombe
		15.2.5 Dekkera/Brettanomyces bruxellensis
	15.3 Yeast Monitoring
		15.3.1 Microbiological Control
			15.3.1.1 Grape and Grape Juice Monitoring
			15.3.1.2 Bulk Wine Monitoring
			15.3.1.3 The Peculiar Case of D. bruxellensis
			15.3.1.4 Wine Bottling
		15.3.2 Tools Used in Microbiological Control in the Wineries
		15.3.3 Acceptable Levels of Yeasts
	15.4 Control of Yeast Populations in Wines
		15.4.1 Hygiene
		15.4.2 Clarification, Fining, and Filtration
		15.4.3 Oxygen and Storage Temperature
		15.4.4 Chemical Preservatives
		15.4.5 Thermal Treatments
	15.5 Future Trends
	References
16 Red Wine Clarification and Stabilization
	16.1 Colloids and Colloidal Instabilities in Red Wines
		16.1.1 Colloids and Colloidal Interactions
		16.1.2 Colloidal Instabilities in Red Wines and Their Prevention
	16.2 Wine Clarification
		16.2.1 Clarification by Settling, With or Without Fining Aids
		16.2.2 Centrifugation and Wine Clarification
		16.2.3 Filtration
			16.2.3.1 Dead-End Filtration
			16.2.3.2 Cross-Flow Microfiltration
			16.2.3.3 Filtration and Microbial Stabilization of Wines
	16.3 Stabilization With Regards to the Crystallization of Tartaric Salts
		16.3.1 Mechanisms and Stability Assessment
		16.3.2 Stabilization Technologies
			16.3.2.1 Cold Stabilization
			16.3.2.2 Electrodialysis
			16.3.2.3 Additives
	16.4 Microbiological Stabilization
	16.5 Conclusion
	References
17 Sensory Analysis of Red Wines for Winemaking Purposes
	17.1 Tasting of Grapes
		17.1.1 Field Sampling
		17.1.2 Grape Tasting
	17.2 Tasting in the Production of Red Wine
	17.3 Tasting During Malolactic Fermentation
	17.4 Conclusions
18 Management of Astringency in Red Wines
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Astringency in Wines
		18.2.1 Mechanisms of Astringency
			18.2.1.1 Salivary Proteins
			18.2.1.2 Phenolic Compounds
				18.2.1.2.1 Proanthocyanidins
		18.2.2 Methods for Astringency Analysis
	18.3 Influence of Winemaking Technology in Wine Astringency
		18.3.1 Grape Ripening
		18.3.2 Maceration and Fermentation
	18.4 Future Outlook
	References
	Further Reading
19 Aromatic Compounds in Red Varieties
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Selection of Aromatic Compounds With Distinct Impact
		19.2.1 Sulfur Compounds
			19.2.1.1 Dimethyl Sulfide
			19.2.1.2 Thiols
			19.2.1.3 Methoxypyrazines
			19.2.1.4 Sesquiterpene—(−)-Rotundone
			19.2.1.5 C13-Norisoprenoides
			19.2.1.6 Esters
			19.2.1.7 Miscellaneous Aroma Compounds
	19.3 Conclusion
	References
20 The Instrumental Analysis of Aroma-Active Compounds for Explaining the Flavor of Red Wines
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Analytes and an Analytical Classification
	20.3 The Analysis of “Easy” Aroma Compounds
	20.4 The Specific Analysis of Volatile Phenols
	20.5 The Analysis of “Difficult” Aroma Compounds in Red Wine
		20.5.1 Acetaldehyde and Sulfur Dioxide
		20.5.2 Volatile Sulfur Compounds
		20.5.3 Strecker Aldehydes and Other Odor-Active Aldehydes
		20.5.4 Highly Polar Compounds
		20.5.5 Polyfunctional Mercaptans
		20.5.6 Alkylmethoxypyrazines
		20.5.7 Other Compounds
	20.6 Final Considerations
	References
21 SO2 in Wines: Rational Use and Possible Alternatives
	21.1 Sulfur Dioxide: Use in the Winemaking Process and Legal Limits
	21.2 Different Forms to Use SO2
	21.3 SO2 Action Mechanisms
	21.4 SO2 Replacement Products for Red Wine Production
		21.4.1 Antimicrobial Activity Substitutes
		21.4.2 Antioxidant Activity Substitutes
		21.4.3 Considerations on SO2 Replacement Additives
	References
22 Red Wine Bottling and Packaging
	22.1 Glass Bottles
		22.1.1 History and Developments
	22.2 Targets Today
		22.2.1 Traditional Fashioned Red Wines Ripening in the Bottle
		22.2.2 Modern Ready to Drink Wines and Shelf Life
	22.3 Bottling Lines
	22.4 Hazards in Bottling Red Wine
		22.4.1 Microbiology
		22.4.2 Chemical Contaminations
		22.4.3 Physical Contamination
		22.4.4 Avoidance of Oxygen With Filling Technology
		22.4.5 Adjusting the Filling Level
		22.4.6 Filling Speed
		22.4.7 Automation Standards Mechanic Fillers—Electronic Fillers
		22.4.8 Packaging Materials
		22.4.9 Glass Bottles
		22.4.10 PET Bottles
		22.4.11 Carton Packaging
		22.4.12 Bag in Box
	22.5 Closures
		22.5.1 Cork
		22.5.2 Screw Caps
		22.5.3 Vinolok
	22.6 Preparing the Wine for Market
		22.6.1 Checking the Filling Level
		22.6.2 Treatment of the Closed Bottles
		22.6.3 Labeling
		22.6.4 Paper Labels
		22.6.5 Self-Adhesive Labels
		22.6.6 Hot Glue Labeling
		22.6.7 Sleeves
		22.6.8 Alternative Labeling Systems
	22.7 Packaging
		22.7.1 Boxing and Wrapping Machines for Bottles
	22.8 Economy
	22.9 Ecology
	References
	Further Reading
23 Red Winemaking in Cool Climates
	23.1 Introduction
		23.1.1 Classifying Cool Climate Regions
	23.2 Cool Climate Grape Varieties in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere
	23.3 Chemical Composition of Grapes in Cool and Warm Climates
		23.3.1 Sugar/Alcohol
		23.3.2 Acid
		23.3.3 Flavor and Aroma
		23.3.4 “Greenness” in Red Wines
		23.3.5 Sources of Green Compounds
		23.3.6 Preventing Greenness in the Vineyard
		23.3.7 Remediating Must and Wine With Elevated MP Levels
	23.4 Innovations in Cool Climate Winemaking
		23.4.1 Appassimento-Style Red Wines
		23.4.2 Red Icewine
	23.5 Making Wine From Red Interspecific Hybrid and Fungus-Resistant Varieties
		23.5.1 Acidity, pH and Potassium
	23.6 Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen
	23.7 Tannins and Anthocyanin
		23.7.1 Aroma
	References
24 Red Winemaking in Cold Regions With Short Maturity Periods
	24.1 Introduction
		24.1.1 Buried Viticulture
		24.1.2 Vine Unearthed in Spring
		24.1.3 Effect of Buried Viticulture on Vines
			24.1.3.1 The Cultivation and Management Technique of Vineyard in Cold Area
	24.2 Wintering Adaptability and Cold Resistance of Grape Vine
	24.3 Influence of Low Temperature on Different Tissues of Grape Vine
		24.3.1 Adaptability of Shoots to Low Temperature
		24.3.2 Adaptability of Buds to Low Temperature
		24.3.3 Adaptability of Roots to Low Temperature
	24.4 Influence of Low Temperature on Grape Cells
		24.4.1 Plasma Membrane Permeability
		24.4.2 Respiration in Cold Climate
	24.5 The Reasons for Freeze Damage
		24.5.1 Grape Variety Resistance to Freeze Damage
		24.5.2 Humidity
		24.5.3 Vine Physiological Limit
	24.6 Maturity Analysis
	24.7 Anthocyanin Accumulation by Viticulture Process
	24.8 Winemaking Technology
	24.9 Final Comments
	References
	Further Reading
Author Index
Subject Index
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