Recent Advances in 3D Geoinformation Science: Proceedings of the 18th 3D GeoInfo Conference (Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography)

Organization
Preface
Contents
Applications of 3D City Models and Digital Twins
Recommendation for Vegetation Information in Semantic 3D City Models Used in Urban Planning Applications
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Background
		1.2 Aim
	2 Vegetation Data in 3D City Models
		2.1 Vegetation Theme in CityGML
		2.2 Vegetation Data in a Swedish Context
	3 Urban Vegetation in Analyses, Simulations, and Visualisations
		3.1 Ecosystem Services
		3.2 Human Well-Being
		3.3 Noise
		3.4 Daylight and Solar Energy
		3.5 Underground Applications
		3.6 Visualizations
	4 Case Studies
		4.1 Study Area
		4.2 Data
		4.3 Daylight Modelling Case Study
		4.4 Sunlight Access Modelling Case Study
	5 Recommendation for Inclusion of Vegetation Information in 3D City Models
		5.1 Recommendation for Vegetation Specifications and Vegetation Related Information in Other Specifications
		5.2 Evaluation of the Recommended Specifications for Urban Planning Applications
	6 Discussion
	7 Conclusions
	References
Shadowing Calculation on Urban Areas from Semantic 3D City Models
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
		2.1 Raster-Based Methods
		2.2 Viewport Method
		2.3 Vector-Tracing Method
		2.4 Other Methods
	3 Method
		3.1 Point Grid Generation
		3.2 Sun Ray Generation with Nightside Filtering
		3.3 Constructing the Bounding Volume Hierarchy
		3.4 Intersection Test
	4 Results
	5 Discussion
	6 Conclusions and Future Work
	References
Supporting Teleoperated Humanitarian Aid Missions with 3D Visualization Using Remote Sensing Data
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Mission Concept
		1.2 Crisis Information Based on Remote Sensing Data
		1.3 Study Areas
		1.4 Prior Works and Studies
	2 Methods
		2.1 Structured Interviews
		2.2 Selection and Implementation of Geodata
		2.3 Availability in Remote Locations
	3 Results
	4 Discussion and Outlook
	References
Solid Waste in the Virtual World: A Digital Twinning Approach for Waste Collection Planning
	1 Introduction
	2 Methods
		2.1 Study Area
		2.2 Methodology
	3 Results
	4 Discussion
	5 Conclusion
	6 Further Research
	References
Automatically Evaluating the Service Quality of Bicycle Paths Based on Semantic 3D City Models
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
		2.1 Semantic 3D Representations of Bicycle Infrastructure
		2.2 Methods and Concepts for Determining the Quality of Bicycle Paths
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Implemented Method for Evaluating the BLOS
		3.2 Requirements Towards Input Data
		3.3 Deriving Width, Slope and Adjacent Surfaces of Bicycle Paths from 3D Streetspace Models
		3.4 Including Bicycle Traffic Volumes
		3.5 Evaluating the Amount of Wide Bicycles (E.G. Cargo Bikes)
		3.6 Linking Results with Semantic 3D City Objects
		3.7 Web-Based Visualization of Results in Combination with 3D City Models
	4 Results
	5 Discussion and Outlook
	References
Virtual and Augmented Reality and Visualization
Virtual Reality Experience Analysis from Point Cloud Data
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Mesh Visualization
		3.2 Point Visualization
		3.3 VR Implementation
		3.4 Definition of Collisions and Navigable Area
	4 Experiments
		4.1 Case Study
		4.2 Results and Analysis
	5 Discussion
	6 Conclusions
	References
Visualisation of 3D Uncertainties for Subsurface Infrastructure Using Augmented Reality
	1 Introduction
	2 Literature Review
		2.1 Uncertainty Visualisation Framework
		2.2 Augmented Reality for Utility Line Visualisation
	3 Data and Case Description
		3.1 Aalborg Case
	4 Method
		4.1 Creating the Baseline
		4.2 Adding Uncertainties
	5 Results and Evaluation
		5.1 Feedback Concerning the General Setup and Visualisation Method
		5.2 Feedback Concerning Uncertainty Visualisation
		5.3 Thoughts on Potential Uses and Possibilities for Further Development
	6 Discussion and Outlook
	References
Immersive Virtual Reality to Verify the As-built State of Electric Line Networks in Buildings
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Study Workflow
		3.2 Reasoning-Based Estimation of Electric Line Networks
		3.3 VR and Reasoner Communication
		3.4 Electric Line Visualization and Interactive Verification
	4 Experiment Results
		4.1 Experiment Environment
		4.2 Electric Line Visualization
		4.3 Electric Line Verification
	5 Conclusion and Outlook
	References
3D Data Mapping with Augmented Reality
	1 Introduction
	2 Augmented Reality
	3 Technical Framework
	4 Demonstration Projects
		4.1 Mapping (In)-Equity
		4.2 #HomeCLT: People. Places. Promises
	5 Discussions and Conclusion
	References
Creating a 3D Multi-Dataset Bubble in Support of OGC Testbed-19 and Metaverse Standards Prototypes
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Research Objectives
		1.2 OGC GeoPose
		1.3 Extending GeoPose to Minkowski Spacetime
		1.4 Use Case Prototypes
		1.5 Method
		1.6 The Ordnance Survey StreetDrone
		1.7 UAV Capture
		1.8 Simulated Orbital Platform
		1.9 Further Sensors and Actors
	2 Results
	3 Data Quality
	4 Conclusions
	References
GIS/BIM Integration
Assessment of the LoD Specification for the Integration of BIM-Derived Building Models in 3D City Models
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Goal and Scope
		1.2 The Software Tools
	2 Methodology
	3 Results
		3.1 Fitting of the BIMShell Output
		3.2 Evaluation of the Framework Fit for the Output
	4 Discussion and Evaluation of the Framework
		4.1 Voxels
		4.2 Non-watertightness
		4.3 Footprints and Roof Outlines
		4.4 Missing Semantic and Opening Information
	5 Conclusions and Proposed Refinements
	References
IFC Georeferencing for OSM
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work, Sample Data and Software
		2.1 Related Work
		2.2 Sample Projects
		2.3 Software Implementations
	3 Georeferencing Information in IFC
		3.1 IFC Schema for Georeferencing Information
		3.2 Georeferencing Examples in SPF
		3.3 Export from CAD
	4 IFC Enrichment
		4.1 Existing Georeferencing Information and Actual Location
		4.2 Georeferencing Method
		4.3 Discussion
	5 Coordinate Conversion
		5.1 Conversion Algorithms
		5.2 Topocentric Cartesian CS
		5.3 Ellipsoidal Surfaces
		5.4 Projected CRS
	6 Verification with OSM Data
	7 Conclusion
	References
Merging BIM, Land Use and 2D Cadastral Maps into a Digital Twin Fit—For—Purpose Geospatial Infrastructure
	1 Objective of the Research
	2 Related Works
	3 Methodology
	4 Case Study
	5 Discussions
	6 Conclusions
	References
Artificial Intelligence for the Automated Creation of Multi-scale Digital Twins of the Built World—AI4TWINNING
	1 Overview
	2 Subprojects
		2.1 AI and Earth Observation for a Multi-scale 3D Reconstruction of the Built Environment
		2.2 Knowledge-Driven 3D Reconstruction from Camera Streams
		2.3 A Hybrid Top-Down Bottom-Up AI Method for Improved Digital Twinning of Buildings
		2.4 AI Based/Knowledge-Driven Reconstruction of Semantic Building Data Using Multiple Image Data Sources
		2.5 Thermal 3D Mapping and CNN Analysis for Enrichment of Building Models
		2.6 Digital Twin Data Consistency Across Multiple Representations
	References
Development of a Geo to BIM Converter: CityJSON Importer Plugin for Autodesk Revit
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Works
		2.1 GeoBIM Integration Tools Evaluation
		2.2 Georeferencing Techniques in BIM
		2.3 GeoBIM Project Experience
		2.4 Open-Source Plugin for CityJSON Support
	3 Challenges that Needed to Be Addressed
		3.1 Georeferencing
		3.2 Data Format
		3.3 3D Geometry Representation
		3.4 Hierarchy of Attributes
		3.5 Performance
		3.6 Friendly for BIM Users
		3.7 Enhanced Visualisation
	4 Conclusion
	5 Future Development
	References
3D Point Cloud Processing and Analysis
Efficient In-Memory Point Cloud Query Processing
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
	3 Architecture
		3.1 Computational Infrastructure
		3.2 Algorithmic Infrastructure for Geometry and Spatial Indexing
		3.3 Algorithmic Infrastructure for Linear Algebra
		3.4 Python Bindings
		3.5 Data Handling
	4 Data Modalities, Query Patterns and the API
	5 Evaluation
		5.1 Extraction of K Nearest Neighbors
		5.2 Extraction of Geometric Features
		5.3 Spatio-Temporal Filtering
	6 Future Work
		6.1 Interactive Analysis
		6.2 Desktop and Web Application
	7 Conclusion
	References
Transferring Façade Labels Between Point Clouds with Semantic Octrees While Considering Change Detection
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Co-registration Using Generalized Iterative Closest Point
		3.2 Semantic Octree
	4 Experiments
		4.1 Quantitative Analysis
		4.2 Qualitative Analysis
		4.3 Discussion
	5 Conclusion
	References
Investigating Data Fusion from Three Different Point Cloud Datasets Using Iterative Closest Point (ICP) Registration
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Works
	3 The Data
	4 Experiments
		4.1 ICP Registration
		4.2 Surface Density and Roughness Estimation
		4.3 M3C2 Distance
	5 Results and Discussions
	6 Conclusions
	References
Sensing Heathland Vegetation Structure from Unmanned Aircraft System Laser Scanner: Comparing Sensors and Flying Heights
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Methodology
	19.3 Study Area and Datasets
		19.3.1 Description of the Study Area
		19.3.2 Sensors
		19.3.3 Data Properties
	19.4 Results and Discussion
	19.5 Conclusion
	References
Comparison of Cloud-to-Cloud Distance Calculation Methods - Is the Most Complex Always the Most Suitable?
	1 Introduction
	2 Methods and Data
	3 Results and Discussion
	4 Conclusion and Future Work
	References
Deriving 3D Models from Point Clouds
Reconstructing Façade Details Using MLS Point Clouds and Bag-of-Words Approach
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
		2.1 LoD3 Building Model Reconstruction
		2.2 Bag of Words Approach
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Overview
		3.2 Sampling of the CAD Models
		3.3 Binary Image Generation and Processing
		3.4 Feature Extraction
		3.5 Incorporation of Semi-Global Features
		3.6 Clustering
		3.7 Histogram Comparison
	4 Experiments
		4.1 Experiments on Models Superimposed with Random Noise
		4.2 Experiments on the TUM-FAÇADE dataset
	5 Discussion
		5.1 3D Interest Point Detection
		5.2 Influences of the Histogram Distance
		5.3 Dense Feature Sampling
	6 Conclusion
	References
Generating 3D Roof Models from ALS Point Clouds Using Roof Line Topologies
	1 Introduction
	2 Methodology
		2.1 Extraction of Roof Lines
		2.2 Correction and Merging of Roof Lines
		2.3 Generation of 3D Roof Structures
	3 Result and Discussion
	4 Conclusion
	References
MLS2LoD3: Refining Low LoDs Building Models with MLS Point Clouds to Reconstruct Semantic LoD3 Building Models
	1 Introduction
	2 LoD3 Applications
	3 Refining LoD 1 and 2 to Obtain LoD3 Building Models
		3.1 Visibility Analysis and Conflict Understanding
		3.2 Embedding 3D Reconstructed Objects into the CityGML Standard
	4 Examples
	5 Discussion
	6 Conclusion
	References
Semantic Segmentation of Buildings Using Multisource ALS Data
	1 Introduction
	2 Test Sites and Data
	3 Methods
	4 Results and Discussion
	5 Conclusions
	6 Future Work
	References
Classifying Point Clouds at the Facade-Level Using Geometric Features and Deep Learning Networks
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Works
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Geometric Features Extraction
		3.2 Classification
	4 Experiments
		4.1 Datasets
		4.2 Geometric Features
		4.3 Validation of Improved Models
	5 Discussion
	6 Conclusion
	References
3D Data Acquisition, Analysis and Simulation for Urban Digital Twins
Enriched Semantic 3D Point Clouds: An Alternative to 3D City Models for Digital Twin for Cities?
	1 Introduction
	2 Mainstream Uses of Point Clouds in Urban Applications
	3 Is a Semantic 3D Point Cloud an Alternative to 3D City Model for DT Applications?
		3.1 Semantic Point Cloud: An Input Layer to DTs for Cities
		3.2 Semantic Point Cloud and Semantic 3D City Models: Advantages and Limitations
		3.3 Semantic Point Cloud: A New Research Field for DTs
	4 . Conclusions
	References
Unsupervised Roofline Extraction from True Orthophotos for LoD2 Building Model Reconstruction
	1 Introduction
	2 Recent Advances in Roofline Extraction
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Building Image Cropping
		3.2 Line Extraction
		3.3 LoD2 Building Reconstruction
	4 Experimental Results
		4.1 Dataset
		4.2 Evaluation and Comparison
	5 Conclusion
	References
Enhancing Realism in Urban Simulations: A Mapping Framework for the German National Standard XPlanung and CityGML
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
	3 Schema Level Integration of 3D City Models and Urban Regulations as a Requirement for Realistic Urban Simulations
	4 Background on Relevant Standards
		4.1 CityGML Definition and Applications
		4.2 CityGML Structure
		4.3 XPlanung as an Urban Plan Content Standard
	5 Mapping XPlanung and Its Regulations on Relevant CityGML Classes
		5.1 Land Use Plan (Flächennutzungplan) and Urban Development Plan (BebauungsPlan)
		5.2 XPlanung Restrictions on the Building Plot
		5.3 XPlanung Restrictions on the Building Underground Components
		5.4 XPlanung Restrictions on the Building Overground Components
		5.5 XPlanung Restrictions on the Building Roof
	6 Discussion and Conclusion
	References
An Alternative Raw Data Acquisition Approach for Reconstructionpg  of LOD3 Models
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Related Work
		1.2 Objectives
	2 Handcart Data Acquisition Approach
		2.1 LOD3 Reconstruction Process Pipeline Overview
		2.2 Data Acquisition Strategy
		2.3 System Design and Building
		2.4 3D Sensor Pose Reconstruction Methods
	3 Experiments and Results
		3.1 Sensor and Motor Driver Setup—Theoretical System Accuracy
		3.2 Calibration Tests and Real Accuracy Determination
		3.3 Outdoor Test Environment
		3.4 Outdoor Test Description
		3.5 3D Sensor Pose Reconstruction Results
		3.6 3D Façade Reconstruction Results
		3.7 Results of Manual Image Annotation
	4 Discussion
	5 Conclusion
	References
Identification and Interpretation of Change Patterns in Semanticpg  3D City Models
	1 Introduction
	2 Foundations and Related Work
		2.1 Rete Networks
		2.2 Petri Nets
		2.3 Graph Transformation Systems
	3 Defining Pattern Rules
		3.1 Definitions
	4 Detecting Change Patterns
	5 Application Examples
	6 Conclusion and Future Work
	References
3D Data Modelling and Topology
A Level of As-Is Detail Concept for Digital Twins of Roads—A Case Study
	1 Introduction
	2 Level of As-Is Detail Concept for Roads
	3 Model Generation Process
	4 Case Study
	5 Discussion
	References
Digital geoTwin: A CityGML-Based Data Model for the Virtual Replica of the City of Vienna
	1 Introduction: Geodata from Maps Towards Urban Digital Twins
	2 Digital geoTwin—A Virtual Replica of the City of Vienna
	3 Digital geoTwin Data Model Requirements
		3.1 Evaluation of CityGML
	4 The Digital geoTwin Data Model for the Semantic 3D City Model of Vienna
		4.1 Test Area
		4.2 LandUse, Transportation and WaterBody Modules
		4.3 Vegetation and CityFurniture Modules
		4.4 Building, Bridge and Tunnel Modules
		4.5 Core Module
	5 Evaluation of the Results
	6 Conclusions
		6.1 Outlook
	References
A Hierarchy of Levels of Detail for 3D Utility Network Models
	1 Introduction
	2 Underground Utility Network Modeling and Level of Detail
		2.1 Current UUN Data Model
		2.2 The Level of Detail for Underground
	3 Proposal of Hierarchy of UUN LoDs
		3.1 UUN LoD Characteristics and UUN Components
		3.2 Hierarchy of LoDs
	4 Visualization and Application of the Water Pipe Aging Simulation
	5 Discussion and Conclusion
	References
Topological Representation of a 4D Cell Complex and Its Dual-Feasibility Study
	1 Introduction
	2 4D DHE
	3 4D Cell Complex
	4 Vario-scale Model
	5 Summary
	References
3D Topology Rules Implementation in Spatial Database
	1 Introduction
	2 Background
	3 Methodology
		3.1 36IM Topology Rules Development
	4 36IM Results and Discussion
		4.1 Case 1: Meet (Touches) Topological Relationship
		4.2 Case 2: Equals Topological Relationship
		4.3 Case 3: Disjoint Topological Relationship
		4.4 Case 4: Contains Topological Relationship
		4.5 Case 5: Inside (Within) Topological Relationship
		4.6 Case 6: Overlaps Topological Relationship
	5 Conclusion
	References
Indoor/Outdoor Modelling and Navigation
RGB-D Semantic Segmentation for Indoor Modeling Using Deep Learning: A Review
	1 Introduction
	2 RGB-D Semantic Segmentation Approaches
		2.1 Encoder Decoder Architecture
		2.2 Recurrent Neural Network
		2.3 Multi-modal Fusion
		2.4 Generative Adversarial Network
	3 Benchmarks
		3.1 Datasets
		3.2 Metrics
	4 Challenges and Research Directions
	5 Conclusion
	References
A Framework for Generating IndoorGML Data from Omnidirectional Images
	1 Introduction
	2 Methodologies
		2.1 Image Data Capture
		2.2 Detecting Spatial Entities
		2.3 Generating IndoorGML Nodes and Edges
	3 Experimental Implementation
	4 Conclusion
	References
Deep Adaptive Network for WiFi-Based Indoor Localization
	1 Introduction
	2 Background
	3 Proposed Method
		3.1 Background
		3.2 Proposed Deep Adaptive Network
	4 Experiment
		4.1 Datasets
		4.2 Setup
		4.3 Online Evaluation
		4.4 Performance of Our Proposed Algorithm Under Different Parameters
		4.5 Positioning Performance of Proposed Algorithm
	5 Conclusion
	References
MoLi-PoseGAN: Model-based Indoor Relocalization Using GAN and Deep Pose Regression from Synthetic LiDAR Scans
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Framework of MoLi-PoseGAN
		3.2 Network of LiDARGAN
		3.3 Pose Regression Network
		3.4 Loss Function
	4 Experimental results
		4.1 LiDAR Dataset
		4.2 LiDARGAN
		4.3 Accuracy and Comparison
	5 Discussion
	6 Conclusion
	References
Digital Twins: Simulating Robot-Human Sidewalk Interactions
	1 Introduction
	2 Literature Review
	3 Digital Twin: 3D University Campus
		3.1 Building Models
		3.2 Terrain
	4 Methodology
		4.1 TwinWalk: Human-Robot Simulation System
		4.2 Pedestrians, Wheelchair Users, and Sidewalk Delivery-Robots
	5 Experiment Design and Evaluation Metrics
		5.1 Experiment Design
		5.2 Evaluation Metrics and Their Significance in Sidewalk Coexistence of Pedestrians and Robots
	6 Results
		6.1 Proximity Violations and Collisions
		6.2 Flow Density
		6.3 Robot Efficiency
	7 Conclusion
	References
Sensors and Dynamic Data in Urban Digital Twins
Dynamic Digital Twins: Challenges, Perspectives and Practical Implementation from a City’s Perspective
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Digital Twins
		1.2 Data Challenges
	2 Concept of Dynamic Digital Twins for Cities
		2.1 Static Semantic Representation
		2.2 Dynamic Representation
	3 Data for Dynamic Digital Twins
		3.1 3D Point Clouds
		3.2 Raster-Image Data
		3.3 Radar Data
		3.4 Satellite Radar Data
		3.5 Sensor Data
		3.6 Data Fusion
	4 Monitoring Infrastructure Applications
		4.1 Infrastructure Database for Road Environments by Semantic Digital Twin
		4.2 Road Condition Assessment by Semantic Digital Twin
		4.3 Ground Movement Monitoring and BIMSAR by Dynamic Digital Twin
		4.4 Tree Monitoring with TreeCop by Dynamic Digital Twin
		4.5 Environmentally and Socially Compatible Traffic Management by Dynamic Digital Twin
		4.6 Technological Challenges from a City’s Perspective
	5 Conclusions and Future Work
	References
Humans As Sensors in Urban Digital Twins
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
	3 Conceptual Framework
	4 Case Study
		4.1 Study Area
		4.2 Data Collection
		4.3 Data Integration
		4.4 Implementation
	5 Discussion
	6 Conclusion
	References
Requirements for Web-Based 4D Visualisation of Integrated 3D City Models and Sensor Data in Urban Digital Twins
	1 Introduction
	2 Background and Related Research
		2.1 Integration of 3D City Models and IoT Data
		2.2 4D Web Visualisation in UDTs
		2.3 Map Design Principles for 4D Visualisation
	3 Visualisation of Integrated 3D City Models and Dynamic Data in UDTs
		3.1 Conceptual Framework
		3.2 Datasets
		3.3 Experiment Implementation
	4 Discussion
		4.1 Data Integration Requirements
		4.2 Technical Requirements
		4.3 User Experience Requirements
	5 Conclusion and Future Work
	References
Investigation of CityGML 3.0 for Modelling Temporal Aspects in Underground Land Administration
	1 Introduction
	2 Temporal Modelling in Literature
	3 Spatio-Temporal Aspects of ULA
	4 Investigation of CityGML 3.0 for 4D ULA
	5 Discussion and Conclusion
	References
Integrating Dynamic Data with 3D City Models via CityJSON Extension
	1 Introduction
	2 Background
		2.1 CityGML Dynamizers
		2.2 Use Cases
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Dynamizers JSON-Schema
		3.2 Integration of Dynamic Data in the 3D City Model
		3.3 Real-Time Data Management
	4 Results
	5 Discussion
	6 Conclusion
	References
Software and Tools for Spatial Data
OGC Data Exchange Toolkit: Interoperable and Reusable 3D Data at the End of the OGC Rainbow
	1 Introduction
	2 Methodology
		2.1 The Definition of a Template for Data Requirements Specification
		2.2 The Profiling Tool Development
		2.3 Validation
	3 Results
		3.1 Data Requirement Definition Template
		3.2 The OGC Data Exchange Toolkit as an Extension of ISO 19131
		3.3 The Profiling Toolkit
		3.4 Test and Validation
	4 Discussion
	5 Conclusions
	References
cjdb: A Simple, Fast, and Lean Database Solution for the CityGML Data Model
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Work
		2.1 CityGML Data Model
		2.2 CityJSON + CityJSONFeature
		2.3 NoSQL Databases
		2.4 3DCityDB
	3 Data Model, Software, and Engineering Decisions
		3.1 Data Model
		3.2 Importer
		3.3 Exporter
	4 Benchmark
		4.1 Import and Export Times
		4.2 Database Size
		4.3 Data Retrieval
	5 Conclusions and Future Work
	6 The 8 SQL Queries Used for the Benchmark for the 3DBAG Dataset
	References
Introducing the 3DCityDB-Tools Plug-In for QGIS
	1 Introduction
	2 User and Software Requirements
	3 The 3DCityDB-Tools Plug-In
	4 Tests and Current Limitations
	5 Conclusions and Outlook
	References
Challenges and Steps Toward Implementing 3D Cadastral Database—Physical Data Model of LADM
	1 Introduction
	2 Literature Review
	3 Steps and Challenges
	4 Conclusion
	References
Optim3D: Efficient and Scalable Generation of Large-Scale 3D Building Models
	1 Introduction
	2 Related Works
	3 Method
		3.1 Materials
		3.2 Data Pre-processing
		3.3 Indexing and Tiling
		3.4 Modeling
		3.5 Post-processing
	4 Results and Discussion
	5 Conclusion
	References
An Overview of the 3D GeoInfo Conference Series
The 3D GeoInfo Journey from 2006 to 2022: A Reflection
	1 Introduction
	2 The First Decade
	3 The Second Decade
	4 Summary and Conclusions
	References