Re-Entry Systems

Preface
Contents
1 Introduction
	1.1 Early History
	1.2 Key Persons
	1.3 The Space Age
		1.3.1 Setting the Stage
		1.3.2 The Capsules
		1.3.3 Gliding Flight
		1.3.4 Visiting Alien Worlds
	1.4 Layout of the Book
	References
2 Planetary Entry Environment
	2.1 Planetary Shape
		2.1.1 Regular Bodies
		2.1.2 Surface Models
		2.1.3 Irregular Bodies
	2.2 Gravity Field
		2.2.1 Spheroid Bodies
		2.2.2 Irregular Bodies
	2.3 Atmospheres
		2.3.1 Exponential Model
		2.3.2 Earth
		2.3.3 Mars
		2.3.4 Titan
		2.3.5 Venus
	References
3 Aerothermodynamics
	3.1 Basics
		3.1.1 Flow-Field Parameters
		3.1.2 Similarity Parameters
		3.1.3 Conservation Laws
		3.1.4 Forces and Moments
		3.1.5 Flow-Field Description
		3.1.6 Numerical and Experimental Techniques
	3.2 Low-Speed Aerodynamics
		3.2.1 Subsonic Flow
		3.2.2 Transonic Flow
	3.3 Supersonic Flow
		3.3.1 Introduction
		3.3.2 Normal Shock
		3.3.3 Oblique Shock
		3.3.4 Expansion Wave
		3.3.5 Boundary Layer
	3.4 Hypersonic Flow
		3.4.1 Flow Properties
		3.4.2 Boundary Layer
		3.4.3 Flow Complications
		3.4.4 Local Inclination Methods
	3.5 Free-Molecular Flow
	3.6 Aerodynamic Heating
		3.6.1 Boundary-Layer Dynamics
		3.6.2 Convection
		3.6.3 Radiation
		3.6.4 Heat Balance
	3.7 *Navier-Stokes Equations
	References
4 Fundamentals of Motion
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Classical Mechanics
		4.1.2 Reference Frames
	4.2 State-Variable Definitions
		4.2.1 Position and Velocity
		4.2.2 Attitude and Angular Rates
	4.3 Frame Transformations
		4.3.1 Unit-Axis Rotations
		4.3.2 *Euler\'s Rotation Theorem
		4.3.3 Standard Frame Transformations
	4.4 Coordinate Transformations
		4.4.1 Position and Velocity
		4.4.2 Attitude
	4.5 General Formulation of the Equations of Motion
	4.6 *Equations of Motion in Spherical Coordinates
		4.6.1 General
		4.6.2 Wind Equations
	References
5 Planar Motion
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Equations of Motion
	5.3 Ballistic Entry
		5.3.1 Flight Mechanics
		5.3.2 Thermal Loads
		5.3.3 Summary
		5.3.4 Case Study: Huygens Entry
		5.3.5 Case Study: Impact of Atmosphere-Model Choice on Mission Design
	5.4 Gliding Entry
		5.4.1 Flight Mechanics
		5.4.2 Thermo-Mechanical Loads
		5.4.3 Entry Corridor
		5.4.4 Footprint
		5.4.5 Case Study: Horus Entry
	5.5 Skipping Entry
		5.5.1 Introduction
		5.5.2 Flight Mechanics
		5.5.3 Thermo-Mechanical Loads
		5.5.4 Numerical Verification of an Aerocapture Mission
		5.5.5 Case Study: Apollo Entry
	5.6 *Second-Order Approximation
		5.6.1 Equations of Motion
		5.6.2 Verification of an Aerocapture Mission—Revisited
	References
6 Characteristic Motion of Entry Vehicles
	6.1 Non-linear Equations of Motion
	6.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenmotion
	6.3 Linearisation of Equations of Motion
	6.4 Eigenmotion of Winged Entry Vehicles
		6.4.1 State-Space Model
		6.4.2 Nominal Mission
		6.4.3 HORUS Characteristic Motion
	6.5 Eigenmotion of Entry Capsules
		6.5.1 Apollo Nominal Mission
		6.5.2 State-Space Model
		6.5.3 Apollo Characteristic Motion
		6.5.4 Huygens Characteristic Motion
	References
7 Guidance, Navigation, and Control
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Sensors
		7.2.1 Inertial Measurement Unit
		7.2.2 Global Positioning System
		7.2.3 Other Sensors
	7.3 Navigation
		7.3.1 Linear Kalman Filter
		7.3.2 Extended Kalman Filter
		7.3.3 Integrated Navigation System
		7.3.4 Case Study: HORUS Navigation System
	7.4 Actuators
		7.4.1 Control Surfaces
		7.4.2 Reaction Control System
		7.4.3 Retro Rockets
		7.4.4 Other Actuators
	7.5 Control
		7.5.1 Introduction
		7.5.2 State and Output Feedback Control
		7.5.3 PID Control
		7.5.4 Optimal Control
		7.5.5 Incremental Non-linear Dynamics Inversion
		7.5.6 Simple Adaptive Control
		7.5.7 Case Study: HORUS Attitude Controller Design
	7.6 Guidance
		7.6.1 Introduction
		7.6.2 Guidance System Space Shuttle
		7.6.3 Other Guidance Principles
		7.6.4 Case Study: Heat-Flux Tracking
	References
8 Terminal Area Energy Management
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Flight Mechanics
		8.2.1 Non-linear Equations of Motion
		8.2.2 Flat, Non-rotating Earth
		8.2.3 Steady-State Approximation
		8.2.4 Diving Flight in the Vertical Plane
		8.2.5 Energy-State Approximation
		8.2.6 Steady Coordinated Turn
	8.3 Terminal Area Guidance Algorithms
		8.3.1 Introduction
		8.3.2 Space Shuttle
		8.3.3 Buran
	8.4 Case Study: Terminal-Area Flight of HORUS
		8.4.1 Vehicle Characteristics
		8.4.2 Steady-State Approximation
		8.4.3 Energy-State Approximation
		8.4.4 Optimal Trajectories in the Vertical Plane
		8.4.5 Maximum-Dive Trajectories in the Vertical Plane
		8.4.6 Energy-Tube Concept
		8.4.7 Influence of a Turn on the Optimal Trajectories
		8.4.8 Conclusions
	References
9 Entry, Descent, and Landing Systems
	9.1 History
	9.2 Parachute Systems
		9.2.1 Introduction
		9.2.2 Hardware Elements
		9.2.3 Parachute Types
		9.2.4 Materials
		9.2.5 Operational Aspects
		9.2.6 Parachute Dynamics Simulation
	9.3 Powered Descent
		9.3.1 Introduction
		9.3.2 Gravity Turn
		9.3.3 E-Guidance
		9.3.4 Terminal Descent
	9.4 Other Decelerators
		9.4.1 Drag Skirt
		9.4.2 Ballute
		9.4.3 Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator
	9.5 Advanced Descent and Landing Systems
		9.5.1 Landing Site Selection
		9.5.2 Integrated Navigation Approach
	9.6 Landing Systems
		9.6.1 Sea Landing
		9.6.2 Shock-Attenuation Techniques
	9.7 Missions
		9.7.1 Surveyor and Apollo Lunar Lander
		9.7.2 Viking
		9.7.3 Galileo
		9.7.4 Stardust
		9.7.5 MER-A and B
		9.7.6 Mars Science Laboratory
	9.8 Case Study: Huygens
		9.8.1 Mission and System
		9.8.2 Simulation Model
		9.8.3 Results
	References
10 Thermal Protection Systems
	10.1 Historical Development
		10.1.1 The Early Days
		10.1.2 Winged Vehicles
		10.1.3 Planetary Probes
	10.2 Design Aspects
		10.2.1 TPS Requirements
		10.2.2 Aerothermodynamics
	10.3 Materials
		10.3.1 Material Types
		10.3.2 Characteristics
	10.4 Design Options
		10.4.1 Characterisation
		10.4.2 Passive Systems
		10.4.3 Semi-Passive Systems
		10.4.4 Active Systems
	10.5 TPS Modelling
		10.5.1 General Approach
		10.5.2 TPS Mass Estimation Relationships
		10.5.3 Ablation Modelling
		10.5.4 Active-Cooling Modelling
		10.5.5 Finite-Difference Model
	10.6 Case Study
	References
11 Aero-assisted Manoeuvres
	11.1 Aerobraking
		11.1.1 Concept and Missions
		11.1.2 Theory
		11.1.3 Guidance
	11.2 Aerocapture
		11.2.1 Concepts and Missions
		11.2.2 Characteristic Trajectories
		11.2.3 Analytic Predictor-Corrector Guidance
		11.2.4 Optimal Aerocapture
		11.2.5 Entry Corridor
		11.2.6 Entry-Corridor Variations
	11.3 Aerogravity Assist
		11.3.1 Introduction
		11.3.2 Gravity Assist
		11.3.3 Atmospheric Passage at Constant Altitude
		11.3.4 Feedback Guidance
		11.3.5 Case Study: Aerogravity Assist at Mars
	References
Answers
Appendix A General Formulation of the Equations of Motion
A.1  Introduction
A.2  Time Derivative of a Vector in a Rotating Frame
A.3  Velocity and Acceleration in a Rotating Frame
A.4  Translational Motion
A.4.1  General Formulation for an Inertial Frame
A.4.2  General Formulation for a Rotating Frame
A.5  Rotational Motion
A.5.1  General Formulation
A.5.2  The Angular Momentum with Respect to the Centre of Mass of a Rigid Body
A.5.3  Derivation of the Euler Equation of Rotational Motion
Appendix B Reference Vehicles
B.1  Entry Capsule: Apollo
B.1.1  General
B.1.2  Aerodynamic Database
B.2  Winged Re-entry Vehicle: HORUS-2B
B.2.1  General
B.2.2  Aerodynamic Database
B.2.3  Mission
B.3  Entry Capsule: Huygens
B.3.1  Mass and Geometry
B.3.2  Aerodynamic Database
B.3.3  Parachute System
B.3.4  SpinVane Model
Appendix C Mathematical Tools and Techniques
C.1  Spherical Trigonometry
C.2  Taylor Series
C.3  Linearisation
C.4  Interpolation
C.4.1  Linear Interpolation
C.4.2  Cubic Spline Interpolation
C.4.3  Cubic Hermite Splines
C.5  Numerical Integration
C.6  Root Finding
Index