Railway Planning, Management, and Engineering

Cover
Half Title
Dedication
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
List of Abbreviations
1. Railways and Transport
	1.1. Invention and evolution of railways
		1.1.1. Historical outline
		1.1.2. The golden age of railways and successive technical innovations
		1.1.3. Railways and their competitors
		1.1.4. Railways in the era of monopoly and competition
	1.2. Characteristics of rail transport
		1.2.1. Ability to transport high volumes
		1.2.2. Energy consumption
		1.2.3. Environmental performance and safety
	1.3. Railways and the economy
		1.3.1. Economic cycles and railways
		1.3.2. Economic growth and railways
		1.3.3. Part of revenue spent for transport and contribution of railways to the economy
	1.4. Mobility, sustainability and railways
		1.4.1. Mobility and transport evolution
		1.4.2. Mobility and sustainability
		1.4.3. Mobility as a service and railways
	1.5. Railways and the private car
		1.5.1. The explosion of private cars
		1.5.2. The electric car
		1.5.3. Carpooling and car sharing
		1.5.4. Driverless (autonomous) vehicles
	1.6. A panorama of passenger traffic of railways around the world
		1.6.1. Evolution of passenger traffic and of traveled distance performed by railways around the world
		1.6.2 Passenger traffic of railways for some countries of the world and evolution over time
		1.6.3. Comparative evolution of passenger traffic for railways and other transport modes
		1.6.4. Share of railways in the national passenger transport market
		1.6.5. Growth rates of passenger traffic of railways
		1.6.6. Distances with a comparative advantage for rail passenger traffic
	1.7. A panorama of freight traffic of railways around the world
		1.7.1. Suitability of railways for some categories of freight
		1.7.2. Evolution of freight traffic of railways around the world
		1.7.3. Freight traffic of railways for some countries of the world and evolution over time
		1.7.4. Comparative evolution of freight traffic for railways and other transport modes
		1.7.5. Share of railways in the national freight transport market
		1.7.6. Growth rates of freight traffic of railways
	1.8. Railway traffic, length of lines, staff, and productivity of railways
	1.9. Priority to passenger or freight traffic
	1.10. Position of railways in the transport market, comparative advantages,and transport services with good prospects for railways
		1.10.1. Competition in the transport market and comparative advantages of railways
		1.10.2. Railways and high speeds
		1.10.3. Urban rail services
		1.10.4. Bulk loads – Rail freight corridors
		1.10.5. Combined transport
		1.10.6. Rail freight transport and logistics
	1.11. Railways and air transport: competition or complementarity
		1.11.1. Fields and conditions of competition and complementarity
		1.11.2. Rail links with airports
		1.11.3. Rail connections of airports with remote areas
		1.11.4. Low-cost air transport and railways
	1.12. The sanitary crisis of 2020 and 2021 and its effects on rail transport
	1.13. International railway institutions
	1.14. The rail industry worldwide
	1.15. Railway interoperability
	1.16. Applications of GPS in railways
	1.17. Big data, Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence and railways
2 High Speeds, Magnetic Levitation, and Hyperloop
	2.1. The evolution of high speeds on rails
		2.1.1. Definition of high-speed trains and evolution of speed
		2.1.2. Panorama of high-speed lines around the world
		2.1.3. High speeds for only passenger or mixed traffic
	2.2. High-speed trains and their impact on the rail market
		2.2.1. High speeds and population concentrations
		2.2.2. Impact of high speeds on the reduction of rail travel times
		2.2.3. High speeds and new rail traffic
	2.3. Technical features of high-speed railway lines
		2.3.1. Technical characteristics of high-speed lines
		2.3.2. Track characteristics for high speeds
		2.3.3. Rolling stock for high speeds
		2.3.4. Power supply at high speeds
		2.3.5. Economic data for high-speed trains
	2.4. The Channel Tunnel and high speeds between London and Paris
		2.4.1. Technical description
		2.4.2. Travel times
		2.4.3. Method of financing and forecasts of demand
		2.4.4. Operation, safety, and maintenance
	2.5. Tilting trains
	2.6. Aerotrain
	2.7. Magnetic levitation
		2.7.1. Technical description
		2.7.2. Comparison of magnetic levitation with conventional railways
		2.7.3. Applications of magnetic levitation
	2.8. Hyperloop technology and systems
3 Policy and Legislation
	3.1. The competitive international environment and the evolution of the organization of railways
	3.2. The dual nature of railways: business and technology
		3.2.1. Weaknesses inherited to railways
		3.2.2. Comparative advantages of railways
		3.2.3. Strategy and restructuring measures
		3.2.4. Railways and transport requirements
	3.3. Globalization and liberalization of the rail market
	3.4. Separation of infrastructure from operation and the new challenges for railways
		3.4.1. Separation as an incentive for competition
		3.4.2. Competition and new challenges for railways
		3.4.3. Various forms of separation
	3.5. A definition of railway infrastructure
	3.6. European Union rail legislation
	3.7. Some representative models of separation of infrastructure from operation in European railways
		3.7.1. The Integrated model
		3.7.2. The Semi-integrated model with apparent organic separation
		3.7.3. The Holding model
		3.7.4. The Separated model
		3.7.5. The Separated model along with further separation in infrastructure
		3.7.6. The Separated model along with privatization
		3.7.7. Assessment of the various models
		3.7.8. Assessment of the impact of railway reforms
	3.8. Rail legislation in the USA and Canada
	3.9. Rail legislation in Japan
	3.10. Rail legislation in China and India
	3.11. Rail legislation in Russia
	3.12. Rail legislation in Australia and New Zealand
	3.13. International rail law – The COTIF convention
4 Forecast of Rail Demand
	4.1. Purposes, needs, and methods for the forecast of rail demand
	4.2. Driving forces and parameters affecting the various categories of rail demand
		4.2.1. Driving forces affecting rail demand
		4.2.2. Effects on rail demand of the principal parameters of rail transport
			4.2.2.1. Passenger rail demand
			4.2.2.2. Freight rail demand
	4.3. Qualitative methods
		4.3.1. Market surveys
		4.3.2. Scenario writing method
		4.3.3. Executive judgment method
		4.3.4. Delphi method
	4.4. Method of trend projection of statistical data
		4.4.1. Theoretical background and conditions of applicability
		4.4.2. Example of a projection of statistical data
	4.5. Time-series models – Box-Jenkins method
	4.6. Econometric models
		4.6.1. Definition, domains of application, and successive steps for the construction of an econometric model
		4.6.2. Statistical tests for the validity of an econometric model
		4.6.3. Examples of some econometric models for the forecast of rail demand
		4.6.4. Exogenous and endogenous variables in rail econometric models
	4.7. A statistical method of forecast for highly diverging data
	4.8. Gravity models
	4.9. Fuzzy models
		4.9.1. Fuzzy numbers and fuzzy logic
		4.9.2. Fuzzy regression analysis
		4.9.3. Example of a fuzzy model
	4.10. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) models
		4.10.1. Artificial neural networks and biological neurons
		4.10.2. Artificial neurons and how they operate
		4.10.3. Input, output, and hidden layers of ANN
		4.10.4. A variety of ANN models
		4.10.5. Suitability and areas of applications of ANN
		4.10.6. Example of application of ANN for the analysis and forecast of rail demand
	4.11. Evaluation of the forecasting ability of a model for the forecast of rail demand
	4.12. A comparative analysis of performances of each method and selection of the appropriate one
5 Costs and Pricing
	5.1. Definition of railway costs
		5.1.1. Construction, maintenance, and operation costs
		5.1.2. Fixed and variable costs
		5.1.3. Marginal cost
		5.1.4. External costs and marginal social cost
		5.1.5. Generalized cost – Monetary value of time
	5.2. Construction costs of a new railway line
		5.2.1. Factors affecting construction costs of railways
		5.2.2. Construction costs for new high-speed lines
		5.2.3. Allocation of construction costs to the various rail components
		5.2.4. Construction costs of civil engineering works
		5.2.5. Construction costs of track superstructure
		5.2.6. Construction costs of electric traction
		5.2.7. Construction costs of signaling
		5.2.8. Costs of installing level crossings
	5.3. Maintenance and operation costs of rail infrastructure
		5.3.1. Maintenance costs of rail infrastructure
		5.3.2. Operation costs of rail infrastructure
	5.4. Costs of purchase and of maintenance of rolling stock
		5.4.1. Costs of high-speed rolling stock
		5.4.2. Costs of purchase of ordinary passenger vehicles
		5.4.3. Costs of purchase of freight vehicles
		5.4.4. Costs of purchase of diesel locomotives
		5.4.5. Costs of purchase of electric locomotives
		5.4.6. Maintenance costs of rolling stock, signaling, and electrification
	5.5. Economic life of the various components of the railway system
	5.6. Costs of operation and revenues of a railway company
		5.6.1. Passenger transport
		5.6.2. Freight transport
		5.6.3. Combined transport
	5.7. Quantification of external costs in monetary values and internalization policies
		5.7.1. Quantification of external costs in monetary values
		5.7.2. Internalization of external costs
	5.8. Pricing of infrastructure
		5.8.1. Principles for the pricing of railway infrastructure
		5.8.2. Objectives of infrastructure pricing
		5.8.3. Financial consequences of infrastructure pricing
		5.8.4. A commercial approach of infrastructure pricing
		5.8.5. Theoretical and practical infrastructure pricing
		5.8.6. Structure of infrastructure pricing
	5.9. Infrastructure pricing models in some countries
		5.9.1. Infrastructure pricing according to European Union legislation
		5.9.2. France
		5.9.3. Germany
		5.9.4. United Kingdom
		5.9.5. Italy
		5.9.6. Spain
		5.9.7. Poland
		5.9.8. Sweden
		5.9.9. Austria
		5.9.10. Belgium
		5.9.11. Denmark
		5.9.12. A comparison of rail infrastructure charges
	5.10. Pricing of operation
		5.10.1. Targets of pricing of operation
		5.10.2. The traditional method of pricing
		5.10.3. Effects of elasticities
		5.10.4. Pricing and competition
	5.11. Pricing of passenger traffic
		5.11.1. The existence (or not) of public service obligations
		5.11.2. The strategic dilemma: profit or increase of traffic
		5.11.3. Pricing for rail operators without public service obligations
		5.11.4. Yield management techniques and unit revenues
		5.11.5. Complementary commercial measures to increase revenues
	5.12. Pricing of freight traffic
6 Planning and Management of Railways
	6.1. Railways, the society, and the economy
		6.1.1. A systems approach for the railways
		6.1.2. Railways and the social and economic environment
			6.1.2.1. The internal and external environment
			6.1.2.2. Strategic and tactical level of decisions
			6.1.2.3. Separation in business units
			6.1.2.4. Changes and requirements of the environment of railways
		6.1.3. Quality control
	6.2. Competition and impact on railway management
	6.3. Feasibility studies and methods of financing
		6.3.1. Need for evaluation of any rail project
		6.3.2. Benefits–costs in the case of a new railway infrastructure
		6.3.3. Evaluation methods for rail projects
		6.3.4. Methods of financing a new rail project
		6.3.5. Public-Private Partnerships
	6.4. Planning the railway activity
		6.4.1. Need and purposes of planning
		6.4.2. Master Plans and Business Plans
		6.4.3. A brief description of a Business Plan of a railway undertaking
	6.5. Project management for railways
		6.5.1. Definition of project management
		6.5.2. Scope, benefits, and costs of project management
		6.5.3. Some rail projects that could require project management
		6.5.4. A description of tasks of project management for railways
	6.6. Management of infrastructure
		6.6.1. Tasks and objectives for rail infrastructure
		6.6.2. A new management approach
		6.6.3. The issue of outsourcing
		6.6.4. The need for homogeneous rail products and services
	6.7. Management and policy for rail passenger transport
		6.7.1. Tasks and objectives for rail passenger transport
		6.7.2. A segmentation of traffic
		6.7.3. A new strategy combining competition, cooperation, and alliances
		6.7.4. Traditional weaknesses and offer of a new global product of railways
		6.7.5. Application of information technologies (internet, SMS)
		6.7.6. Marketing – Customer satisfaction surveys – Creation of a new culture
	6.8. Management and policy for rail freight transport
		6.8.1. Tasks and objectives of rail freight transport
		6.8.2. A merciless competition
	6.9. Human resources and their revalorization
		6.9.1. The need for a more entrepreneurial approach
		6.9.2. Allocation of human resources
		6.9.3. The art of motivating people to work
		6.9.4. Increase of productivity
		6.9.5. Restructuring and revalorization of human resources
	6.10. Privatization of railways
		6.10.1. Prerequisites and targets of privatization
		6.10.2. Privatization and competition
		6.10.3. The problem of debt
		6.10.4. The need for a strong Regulator
		6.10.5. Privatization of infrastructure
		6.10.6. Privatization of operation
		6.10.7. Some cases of privatization of railways all over the world
		6.10.8. Effects and degree of privatization
	6.11. Justification and calculation of public service obligations
7 The Track System
	7.1. The traditional division of railway topics into track, traction, and operation
	7.2. The track system and its components
	7.3. Track on ballast or on concrete slab
	7.4. Track gauge
	7.5. Axle load and traffic load
		7.5.1. Axle load
		7.5.2. Traffic load
	7.6. Sleeper spacing
	7.7. The wheel-rail contact
	7.8. Transverse wheel oscillations along the rail
	7.9. Rail inclination on sleeper
	7.10. Loading gauge
		7.10.1. Static and dynamic loading gauge
		7.10.2. European, British, and American loading gauge
		7.10.3. Loading gauge for high-speed tracks
		7.10.4. Loading gauge for metro systems
		7.10.5. Loading gauge for metric gauge tracks
	7.11. Forces generated by the movement of a rail vehicle – Static and dynamic analysis
		7.11.1. Forces generated
		7.11.2. Static and dynamic analysis – Track defects and additional dynamic loads
	7.12. Influence of forces on passenger comfort
8 Mechanical Behavior of Track
	8.1. A variety of methods adjusted to the nature of the problem under study
	8.2. Track coefficients and Bousinesq’s analysis
		8.2.1. Definitions – Symbols
		8.2.2. Track coefficients
		8.2.3. Track coefficients and Bousinesq’s analysis
	8.3. Approximate one-dimensional elastic analysis of track
		8.3.1. Assumptions and equations
		8.3.2. Results of the one-dimensional analysis
	8.4. Accurate analysis of the mechanical behavior of track – Finite element method and elastoplastic analysis
		8.4.1. A short description of the finite element method and applications for track problems
		8.4.2. Construction of the mesh of the model
		8.4.3. Limit conditions
		8.4.4. Stress-strain relation
			8.4.4.1. Case of ballast and subgrade
			8.4.4.2. Case of rail and sleeper
		8.4.5. Numerical calculations
		8.4.6. Determination of the mechanical characteristics of the various materials
		8.4.7. Stress and strain in the track–subgrade system
		8.4.8. Distribution of wheel load along successive sleepers
		8.4.9. Elastic line of sleeper
	8.5. Dynamic analysis of the track– subgrade system
	8.6. Track defects and additional dynamic loads
	8.7. Dynamic impact factor coefficient
	8.8. Design of the track–subgrade system
	8.9. Vibrations and noise from rail traffic
		8.9.1. Origins of rail vibrations
		8.9.2. Relation of rail noise level to speed
		8.9.3. Damping of rail noise in relation to distance
		8.9.4. Noise level in relation to infrastructure type
		8.9.5. Noise level in high speeds
		8.9.6. Noise level standards
	8.10. Analysis of the accurate mechanical behavior of rail
	8.11. Application of unilateral contact theories in railway problems
		8.11.1. Transmission of forces through contact surfaces
		8.11.2. Unilateral contact theories
		8.11.3. Equations of the unilateral contact problem
		8.11.4. Numerical calculations
	8.12. The boundary element method
9 Subgrade – Geotechnical and Hydrogeological Analysis
	9.1. The importance of the railway subgrade on track quality and its functions
	9.2. Analytical geotechnical study
		9.2.1. Targets of a geotechnical study and soil investigation
		9.2.2. Preliminary studies
		9.2.3. Techniques and methods of exploration used in a geotechnical study
		9.2.4. Planning the exploration program
		9.2.5. Geotechnical report and longitudinal section
	9.3. Geotechnical classifications of soils
	9.4. Hydrogeological conditions
	9.5. Classification of the railway subgrade
	9.6. Mechanical characteristics of the subgrade
	9.7. The formation layer
		9.7.1. Laying of formation layer in new tracks
		9.7.2. Improvement of formation layer in existing tracks
	9.8. Impact of traffic load on the subgrade
	9.9. Impact of maintenance conditions on the subgrade
		9.9.1. The maintenance coefficient
		9.9.2. Impact of the maintenance coefficient on the behavior of track bed and the subgrade
		9.9.3. Impact of the maintenance coefficient on subgrade stresses
	9.10. Fatigue behavior of the subgrade
	9.11. Frost protection of railway subgrades
		9.11.1. Frost index
		9.11.2. Frost foundation thickness
		9.11.3. Frost protection methods on existing tracks
	9.12. Track subgrade in cuts and on embankments – Values of slopes
		9.12.1. Subgrade in cut sections
		9.12.2. Subgrade on embankment sections
	9.13. The reinforced soil technique
	9.14. Hydraulic analysis and calculation of flows
		9.14.1. Level of ground water
		9.14.2. Semi-empirical formulas for the calculation of run-off flows
		9.14.3. The rational method for the calculation of run-off flows
	9.15. Geotextiles in railway subgrades
		9.15.1. Characteristics, types, and properties of geotextiles
		9.15.2. Use and applications of geotextiles in the railway subgrade
	9.16. Vegetation on the subgrade and the ballast
		9.16.1. Vegetation on the track and herbicides
		9.16.2. Criteria and dosage for application of herbicides
	9.17. Earthquakes and the behavior of track and the subgrade
10 The Rail
	10.1. Rail profiles
	10.2. Manufacturing of rail steel
	10.3. Mechanical strength and chemical composition of rail steel
		10.3.1. Mechanical strength
		10.3.2. Chemical composition
			10.3.2.1. Carbon
			10.3.2.2. Manganese
			10.3.2.3. Chromium and Silicon
			10.3.2.4. Chromium – Manganese
			10.3.2.5. Equivalent carbon percentage
		10.3.3. Rail grades
			10.3.3.1. Rail grades according to UIC
			10.3.3.2. Rail grades according to the European standard
			10.3.3.3. Choice of rail grade
	10.4. Choice of rail profile
		10.4.1. Standard gauge tracks
		10.4.2. Metric gauge tracks
		10.4.3. Broad gauge tracks
		10.4.4. Geometrical characteristics of various rail profiles
	10.5. Transport of rails
	10.6. Analysis of stresses in the rail
		10.6.1. Stresses at the wheel-rail contact
		10.6.2. Bending stresses of the rail on the ballast
		10.6.3. Bending stresses of the rail head on the rail web
		10.6.4. Stresses caused by temperature changes
		10.6.5. Plastic stresses
	10.7. Analysis of the mechanical behavior of rail by the finite element and the photoelasticity methods
	10.8. Rail fatigue
		10.8.1. Fatigue curve and rail lifetime determination
		10.8.2. Rail fatigue criterion
		10.8.3. Evolution of an internal discontinuity
	10.9. Rail defects
		10.9.1. Definition of rail defects
		10.9.2. Codification of rail defects
		10.9.3. Defects in rail ends
		10.9.4. Defects away from rail ends
			10.9.4.1. Tache ovale
			10.9.4.2. Horizontal cracking
			10.9.4.3. Rolling (running) surface
			10.9.4.4. Short-pitch corrugations
			10.9.4.5. Long-pitch corrugations
			10.9.4.6. Lateral wear
			10.9.4.7. Shelling of the running surface
			10.9.4.8. Gauge-corner shelling
		10.9.5. Defects caused by rail damage
			10.9.5.1. Bruising
			10.9.5.2. Faulty machining
		10.9.6. Welding and resurfacing defects
			10.9.6.1. Electric flash-butt welding
			10.9.6.2. Thermit welding and electric arc welding defects
	10.10. Permissible rail wear
		10.10.1. Vertical wear
		10.10.2. Lateral wear
	10.11. Optimum lifetime of rail
	10.12. Fishplates
	10.13. The continuous welded rail
		10.13.1. The continuous welding technique
		10.13.2. Mechanical behavior of continuous welded rail
			10.13.2.1. Assumptions
			10.13.2.2. Simplified mechanical analysis of continuous welded rail
			10.13.2.3. Distribution of forces along a continuous welded rail
			10.13.2.4. Length changes in the expansion zone
			10.13.2.5. Rail welding
				10.13.2.5.1. Flash-butt welding
				10.13.2.5.2. Thermit welding
			10.13.2.6. Distressing of a continuous welded rail
		10.13.3. Expansion devices
		10.13.4. Advantages of the continuous welded rail
11 Sleepers – Fastenings
	11.1. The various types of sleepers and their functions
	11.2. Steel sleepers
		11.2.1. Form and properties
		11.2.2. Dimensions, weight, and chemical composition
		11.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages
		11.2.4. Lifetime
	11.3. Timber sleepers
		11.3.1. Form, properties, and timber types
		11.3.2. Geometrical characteristics
		11.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages
		11.3.4. Lifetime
		11.3.5. Deformability of timber sleepers
	11.4. Concrete sleepers
		11.4.1. Inherent weaknesses of concrete sleepers
		11.4.2. The two types of concrete sleepers
	11.5. The twin-block reinforced-concrete sleeper
		11.5.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength
		11.5.2. Advantages and disadvantages
		11.5.3. Lifetime
		11.5.4. Deformability of twin-block sleepers
		11.5.5. Twin-block sleepers in high-speed tracks
	11.6. The monoblock prestressed-concrete sleeper
		11.6.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength
		11.6.2. Advantages and disadvantages
		11.6.3. Lifetime
		11.6.4. Deformability of monoblock sleepers
		11.6.5. Monoblock sleepers in high-speed tracks
		11.6.6. Manufacturing, quality control, and testing of concrete sleepers
	11.7. Plastic and composite sleepers
		11.7.1. Definition and distinction of plastic from composite sleepers
		11.7.2. Categories and mechanical strength
		11.7.3. Advantages and disadvantages
		11.7.4. Lifetime, cost, and applications
	11.8. Stresses beneath the sleeper
	11.9. Fastenings
		11.9.1. Functional characteristics
		11.9.2. Types of fastenings
			11.9.2.1. Rigid fastenings
			11.9.2.2. Elastic fastenings
			11.9.2.3. Types of elastic fastenings
			11.9.2.4. Operating principles of elastic fastenings
		11.9.3. Forces and stresses in rigid and in elastic fastenings
		11.9.4. Design criteria, anchorage, and insulation of a fastening
		11.9.5. Rail creep and anti-creep anchors
	11.10. Resilient pads
		11.10.1. Pads with or without a baseplate
		11.10.2. Functions and properties of pads
		11.10.3. Dimensions, materials, and design
		11.10.4. Force-elongation curves
	11.11. Requirements of the European specifications for the sleeper-fastening system
	11.12. Numerical application for the design of the various track components
12 Ballast
	12.1. Functions of ballast and subballast
		12.1.1. Functions of ballast
		12.1.2. Functions of subballast
	12.2. Geometrical characteristics of ballast
		12.2.1. Granulometric composition
		12.2.2. Fine particles
		12.2.3. Fines
		12.2.4. Particle shape
			12.2.4.1. Flakiness index
			12.2.4.2. Shape index
			12.2.4.3. Particle length
	12.3. Mechanical behavior of ballast and subballast
		12.3.1. Elastoplastic behavior
		12.3.2. Fatigue behavior
			12.3.2.1. Ballast
			12.3.2.2. Subballast
		12.3.3. Modulus of elasticity
			12.3.3.1. Ballast
			12.3.3.2. Subballast
		12.4.1. The Deval test
		12.4.2. The Los Angeles test
		12.4.3. The Microdeval test
		12.4.4. Required strength and hardness of ballast
	12.5. Determination of the appropriate thickness of ballast
		12.5.1. Determination of the appropriate thickness of track bed
		12.5.2. Required thickness of track bed (ballast + subballast) to avoid frost penetration
		12.5.3. Thickness of ballast and subballast
		12.5.4. Calculation of thickness of ballast according to British regulations
		12.5.5. Numerical application
		12.5.6. Appropriate thickness of ballast for metric gauge tracks
	12.6. Track cross-sections
	12.7. Lifetime and reuse of ballast
	12.8. Monitoring of ballast characteristics with the use of radar systems
13 Transverse Effects – Derailment
	13.1. Transverse effects
	13.2. Transverse track forces
		13.2.1. Transverse static force
		13.2.2. Transverse dynamic force
	13.3. Transverse track resistance
	13.4. Influence of ballast characteristics on transverse track resistance
		13.4.1. Influence of the geometrical characteristics of the ballast cross-section
		13.4.2. Influence of the granulometric composition of ballast
		13.4.3. Influence of the degree of ballast compacting
	13.5. Influence of sleeper type on transverse track resistance
	13.6. Additional measures and special equipment used to increase transverse track resistance
	13.7. Derailment
		13.7.1. Derailment caused by track shifting
		13.7.2. Derailment caused by wheel climbing on the rail
		13.7.3. Derailment caused by the overturning of the vehicle
		13.7.4. Derailment safety factor – Numerical application
	13.8. Effects of transverse winds
14 Track Layout
	14.1. Rail vehicle running on a curve
		14.1.1. Effects during movement of a rail vehicle on a curve
		14.1.2. Transition curve – Cubic parabola or clothoid
	14.2. Theoretical and actual values of cant – Permissible values of transverse acceleration
		14.2.1. Theoretical value of cant for the complete compensation of centrifugal forces
		14.2.2. Applied value of cant, cant deficiency, and cant excess
		14.2.3. Cant deficiency and tilting trains
		14.2.4. Permissible values of transverse acceleration
		14.2.5. Variation in time of cant deficiency
	14.3. Limit values of cant, cant deficiency, cant excess, and non-compensated transverse acceleration
		14.3.1. Limit values according to UIC
		14.3.2. Limit values according to European specifications
		14.3.3. Geometrical characteristics of layout in some high-speed tracks
	14.4. Calculation of the transition curve
	14.5. Calculation of the circular arc
	14.6. Case of consecutive same sense and antisense circular arcs
	14.7. Superelevation ramp
	14.8. Combining maximum and minimum speeds
	14.9. Relationship of train speed with radius of curvature
	14.10. Transition curves in the case of variation of the distance between the axes of two tracks
	14.11. Longitudinal gradients and vertical transition curves
		14.11.1. Longitudinal gradients
		14.11.2. Vertical transition curves
	14.12. Some considerations for metric gauge tracks
	14.13. Layout design with the use of tables and computer methods
	14.14. Numerical application for the layout and the longitudinal design of a track
		14.14.1. Layout design
		14.14.2. Longitudinal design
	14.15. Construction of a new railway line
		14.15.1. Feasibility study
		14.15.2. Preliminary design
		14.15.3. Outline design
		14.15.4. Final design
		14.15.5. Staking of the track layout
	14.16. Environmental aspects of track layout
15 Switches, Tracks in Stations, Marshaling Yards
	15.1. Functions of switches
	15.2. Components of a turnout
	15.3. Various forms of turnouts
	15.4. Running speed on turnouts
	15.5. Geometrical characteristics of turnouts
	15.6. Derailment criterion for turnouts and crossings
	15.7. Turnouts on a curved main track
	15.8. Turnouts run with increased speeds
	15.9. Track layout and positioning of sleepers in turnouts
	15.10. Manual and automatic operation of turnouts
	15.11. Design principles for turnouts and crossings
	15.12. Lifetime and maintenance costs of turnouts
	15.13. Turnouts and tracks in railway stations
		15.13.1. Railway station: a node connecting the railway with life and economy
		15.13.2. Topologies of tracks in stations
		15.13.3. Layout of turnouts and tracks in a medium-size station
		15.13.4. Length, width, and height of platforms
	15.14. Turnouts and tracks in marshaling yards
		15.14.1. Definition and functions of a marshaling yard
		15.14.2. The various types of marshaling yards
			15.14.2.1. Flat yards
			15.14.2.2. Gravity yards
			15.14.2.3. Hump yards
		15.14.3. Automatic regulation of turnouts in marshaling yards
		15.14.4. Design of a marshaling yard
16 Laying and Maintenance of Track
	16.1. Laying of track
		16.1.1. Mechanical equipment
		16.1.2. Sequence of construction of the various track works
	16.2. Track maintenance and parameters influencing it
		16.2.1. Preventive, corrective, and condition-based maintenance
		16.2.2. Geometrical and mechanical parameters
	16.3. Definitions and parameters associated with track defects
	16.4. Track defects
		16.4.1. Longitudinal defect
		16.4.2. Transverse defect
		16.4.3. Horizontal defect
		16.4.4. Track gauge
		16.4.5. Track twist
	16.5. Recording methods of track defects
	16.6. Limit values of track defects
		16.6.1. Limit values for high-, rapid- and medium-speed tracks
		16.6.2. Limit values for medium- and low-speed tracks
		16.6.3. Acceptance values
		16.6.4. Emergency values
		16.6.5. Limit values according to European specifications
	16.7. Progress of track defects
		16.7.1. Longitudinal defect
			16.7.1.1. Mean settlement of track
			16.7.1.2. Standard deviation of longitudinal defects
			16.7.1.3. Interval between maintenance sessions
		16.7.2. Transverse defect
		16.7.3. Horizontal defect
		16.7.4. Gauge deviations
		16.7.5. Track twist
	16.8. Mechanical equipment for maintenance works
	16.9. Scheduling of maintenance operations
	16.10. Technical considerations for track maintenance works
	16.11. Optimization of track maintenance expenses – The RAM Sanalysis
		16.11.1. Optimization of track maintenance expenses
		16.11.2. The RAMS analysis
		16.11.3. Track maintenance by own resources or by outsourcing
	16.12. Condition-based maintenance, Big data, and Artificial Intelligence
	16.13. Track maintenance, vegetation, and weed control
17 Slab Track
	17.1. The dilemma between ballasted and non-ballasted track
		17.1.1. Advantages and weaknesses of ballasted track
		17.1.2. The non-ballasted track
		17.1.3. First trials, tests, and evolution of slab track techniques
	17.2. A variety of forms of non-ballasted track
	17.3. Slab track with sleepers
		17.3.1. The Rheda technique
		17.3.2. The Züblin technique
		17.3.3. The Stedef technique
	17.4. Slab track without sleepers (Shinkansen, Bögl, Embedded)
	17.5. Non-ballasted track on an asphalt layer
	17.6. Mechanical behavior of slab track
		17.6.1. Application of the finite element method for the modeling of slab track
		17.6.2. Stresses and settlements in the case of slab track
	17.7. Transition between ballasted and slab track
	17.8. Costs and construction rates of slab track
	17.9. Monitoring and repair of slab track
18 Train Dynamics
	18.1. Train traction
	18.2. Resistances acting during train motion
	18.3. Running resistance RL
		18.3.1. General equation for the running resistance
		18.3.2. Empirical formulas of some railways for the running resistance
			18.3.2.1. Formulas of the French railways
				18.3.2.1.1. Diesel or electric locomotives
				18.3.2.1.2. Hauled rolling stock
				18.3.2.1.3. Electric passenger vehicles
			18.3.2.2. Formula of the American railways
			18.3.2.3. Formulas of the German railways
			18.3.2.4. Formulas for broad and metric gauge railways
		18.3.3. Resistances developed when running in a tunnel
			18.3.3.1. Pressure problems
			18.3.3.2. Increased aerodynamic resistances in tunnels
			18.3.3.3. Crossing of trains in tunnels
			18.3.3.4. Tunnel cross-section requirements at high speeds
		18.3.4. Comparative running resistance between railways and road vehicles
	18.4. Resistance Rc due to track curves
	18.5. Resistance Rg caused by gravity
	18.6. Inertial (acceleration) resistance Rin
	18.7. Starting force and traction force of a train
	18.8. Adhesion forces
	18.9. Required power of the engine of a train
	18.10. Values of train acceleration and deceleration
	18.11. Train braking
		18.11.1. Braking systems
		18.11.2. Braking distance
		18.11.3. European specifications concerning braking
19 Rolling Stock
	19.1. Components of a rail vehicle
	19.2. Wheels
		19.2.1. Geometrical characteristics and materials
		19.2.2. Wheel defects and reprofiling
		19.2.3. Life cycle of a wheel
	19.3. Axles
	19.4. Bogies
		19.4.1. Definition and functions of a bogie
		19.4.2. Forms of bogies
		19.4.3. Components of a bogie
		19.4.4. Self-steering bogie
	19.5. Springs
	19.6. Couplings and buffers
	19.7. Design of rolling stock
	19.8. Localization of the position of a rail vehicle with the use of GPS or other satellite systems
	19.9. Tilting trains
		19.9.1. Needs which gave rise to the tilting technology
		19.9.2. Tilting technology
		19.9.3. Technical and operating characteristics of tilting trains
		19.9.4. Reductions in travel times by tilting trains
		19.9.5. Cost of tilting trains
	19.10. Maintenance of rolling stock
		19.10.1. Objectives and scheduling
		19.10.2. Levels and works of maintenance
		19.10.3. Equipment and staff
	19.11. Preventive, corrective, and condition-based maintenance of rolling stock
20 Diesel and Electric Traction, Hydrogen Trains
	20.1. The various traction systems
	20.2. Steam traction
		20.2.1. Operating principle of the steam engine
		20.2.2. Main parts of a steam locomotive
		20.2.3. Disadvantages and obsolescence of the steam locomotive
	20.3. From steam traction to diesel traction and electric traction
		20.3.1. From steam traction to diesel traction
		20.3.2. From steam traction to electric traction
		20.3.3. Gas turbine locomotives
	20.4. Diesel traction
		20.4.1. Operating principle of the diesel engine
		20.4.2. Transmission systems
		20.4.3. Requirements of diesel locomotives
		20.4.4. Advantages and disadvantages of diesel traction
	20.5. Electric traction and its subsystems
		20.5.1. Power supply subsystem
		20.5.2. Traction subsystem
		20.5.3. Requirements and priorities
	20.6. Electric traction systems
		20.6.1. Direct current traction
		20.6.2. Alternating current traction
			20.6.2.1. Alternating current traction at 15 kV, 162/3 Hz
			20.6.2.2. Alternating current traction at 25 kV, 50 Hz
		20.6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of electric traction compared to diesel traction
	20.7. Feasibility analysis before electrification
		20.7.1. Feasibility analysis parameters and procedure
		20.7.2. Criterion for selection of the lines to be electrified
	20.8. Overhead contact system
		20.8.1. Parts and components of the overhead contact system
		20.8.2. Calculation of the characteristics of the contact wire with the use of physical models
		20.8.3. Calculation of the contact wire with the use of the finite element method
		20.8.4. Suspension of overhead contact systems
		20.8.5. The pantograph
		20.8.6. Power transmission by conductor rail
		20.8.7. Electrical and power characteristics of some high-speed tracks
	20.9. Poles supporting overhead contact line
		20.9.1. Pole material
		20.9.2. Pole spacing
		20.9.3. Pole foundation
	20.10. Substations
		20.10.1. Substations feeding direct current systems
		20.10.2. Substations feeding alternating current systems
		20.10.3. From thyristors to ‘gate turn off ’ technology
		20.10.4. Operation control center
		20.10.5. Interference of electric traction with telecommunication and signaling systems
	20.11. Synchronous and asynchronous motors
	20.12. Maintenance of locomotives – Depot
	20.13. Hydrogen trains
		20.13.1. Hydrogen as a source of energy
		20.13.2. Emergence and first applications of hydrogen trains
		20.13.3. Advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen trains
		20.13.4. Costs of hydrogen
21 Signaling – Automations – Interoperability
	21.1. Functions of signaling
		21.1.1. Evolution of signaling
		21.1.2. Braking distance and signaling requirements
		21.1.3. Traffic safety and regularity
		21.1.4. The regulatory framework
		21.1.5. Basic functions of signaling
	21.2. Semaphore signaling
		21.2.1. Visual and audible signals
		21.2.2. Colors used in signals
		21.2.3. Types of signals
	21.3. Operating principles of light signaling – The track circuit
		21.3.1. Definition of light signaling
		21.3.2. The track circuit
			21.3.2.1. Definition and components
			21.3.2.2. Operating principle of the track circuit
			21.3.2.3. The block section
			21.3.2.4. Types of track circuits
			21.3.2.5. Track circuit relay
	21.4. Equipment and parts of a light signaling system
		21.4.1. Light signals
		21.4.2. Switch control devices
		21.4.3. Train integrity detectors
		21.4.4. Approach locking detectors
		21.4.5. Local operation and display board
		21.4.6. Remote monitoring and control
			21.4.6.1. Principles of operation
			21.4.6.2. Equipment
			21.4.6.3. Remote monitoring – Control of traffic safety
		21.4.7. Power supply equipment
	21.5. Running procedure of trains in a light signaling system
		21.5.1. Route interlock
		21.5.2. Single track interlock
		21.5.3. Approach interlock
		21.5.4. Interlocking of opposite schedules
		21.5.5. Free way interlocking
		21.5.6. Light signal interlocking
		21.5.7. Compatible and incompatible schedules
	21.6. Speed control
		21.6.1. The various speed control systems
			21.6.1.1. Automatic control and driver functions
			21.6.1.2. Intermittent speed control
			21.6.1.3. Continuous speed control
			21.6.1.4. Speed control and interoperability
		21.6.2. Technical characteristics of train speed control systems
			21.6.2.1. Electromechanical control
			21.6.2.2. Track-locomotive continuous communication system
	21.7. The various degrees of automations in light signaling and operation of trains
	21.8. Train scheduling
	21.9. Capacity of track
		21.9.1. Definition of track capacity
		21.9.2. Theoretical, practical, used, and available capacity
		21.9.3. Models for the calculation of track capacity
			21.9.3.1. Homogeneous traffic under ideal conditions
			21.9.3.2. Delays and their effects
			21.9.3.3. Homogenous traffic under real conditions
			21.9.3.4. Practical capacity for single and double tracks
			21.9.3.5. Some computer models for the calculation of track capacity
		21.9.4. Capacity optimization with the use of satellite technologies
	21.10. Interoperability
		21.10.1. Definition
		21.10.2. Interoperability of track gauges
		21.10.3. Interoperability of power systems
		21.10.4. The European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS)
		21.10.5. Costs and degree of deployment of ERTMS
22 Safety – Level Crossings
	22.1. Safety and railway accidents
		22.1.1. Definition of safety and accidents
		22.1.2. Railway accidents as spectacular but also ordinary events
		22.1.3. Railway safety: a transverse and composite subject – Rail safety authorities
	21.2. Types and causes of railway accidents
		22.2.1. Types of railway accidents
		22.2.2. Causes of railway accidents
	22.3. Categorization and indices of railway accidents
		22.3.1. Categorization of railway accidents
		22.3.2. Indicators for assessing rail safety
	22.4. Evolution and statistical analysis of railway accidents
		22.4.1. Relativity and inconsistency of statistical data
		22.4.2. Gravity and effects of the various types of accidents
		22.4.3. Statistical evolution of effects of railway accidents
		22.4.4. Suicides and trespassers accidents in the railway area
		22.4.5. Costs and economic impact of railway accidents
		22.4.6. Railway safety in comparison with other transport modes and among various countries
	22.5. Measures to improve railway safety
	22.6. Level crossings: Definition, classification, and indicators
		22.6.1. Definition of level crossings
		22.6.2. Classification of level crossings
		22.6.3. Average distance between level crossings
		22.6.4. Maximum train speed for installing level crossings
		22.6.5. Indicators for assessing safety performance in level crossings
	22.7. Causes, statistical evolution, and effects of accidents in level crossings
		22.7.1. Causes of accidents in level crossings
		22.7.2. Statistical evolution of accidents in level crossings
		22.7.3. Economic impact of accidents in level crossings
	22.8. Policy, principles, and management strategy for level crossings
		22.8.1. General policy and management strategy
		22.8.2. Case of passive level crossings
		22.8.3. Case of active level crossings
		22.8.4. Replacement of level crossings with flyovers or overpasses
		22.8.5. A strategy with clear priorities
	22.9. Equipment of warning and protection in level crossings
		22.9.1. Passive level crossings
		22.9.2. Active level crossings
		22.9.3. Illumination in level crossings
		22.9.4. Cost of equipment in level crossings
	22.10. Layout in the area of a level crossing
		22.10.1. Design of road pavement and of cross-section in a level crossing
		22.10.2. Sight distances in level crossings
		22.10.3. Horizontal alignment of roads and tracks in a level crossing
23 Environmental Effects of Railways
	23.1. Climate change, the transport sector, and sustainable development
		23.1.1. Climate change
		23.1.2. The greenhouse effect and climate change
		23.1.3. International initiatives and agreements
		23.1.4. Sustainable development
		23.1.5. Transport and the environment
	23.2. Air pollution and railways
		23.2.1. Air pollutants from railways and other transport modes
		23.2.2. Specific emissions of air pollutants from railways and other transport modes
		23.2.3. The greenhouse effect and CO2 emissions from railways and other transport modes
		23.2.4. Specific CO2 emissions from railways and other transport modes
		23.2.5. CO2 emissions for diesel and electric trains
		23.2.6. Internalization of costs of CO2 emissions
	23.3. Railway noise
		23.3.1. Sources and damping of railway noise
		23.3.2. Noise indicators and maximum permitted level of rail noise
		23.3.3. Measures for the reduction of rail noise and related costs
	23.4. Energy consumption and railways
		23.4.1. Energy consumption and the transport sector
		23.4.2. Energy consumption within the transport sector
		23.4.3. Energy consumption for diesel and electric traction
		23.4.4. Specific energy consumption of railways for passenger and freight traffic around the world
		23.4.5. Comparative specific energy consumption for railways and other transport modes
	23.5. Energy consumed in railways for comfort functions
List of References
Index