Radiation Detection and Interdiction at U.s. Borders

Cover......Page 1
Contents......Page 6
List of Illustrations......Page 12
Preface......Page 20
Acknowledgments......Page 22
Introduction......Page 24
Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 28
Units......Page 30
1 Overview of Radiation Interdiction......Page 34
1.1 Radiation Portal Monitor Project History......Page 35
1.1.1 Interdiction Goals and Objectives......Page 36
1.1.2 Radiation Portal Monitor Project Mission......Page 37
1.1.3 Initial Radiation Portal Monitor Project Activities......Page 38
1.1.4 The Beginning of Radiation Portal Monitor Deployment......Page 39
1.1.5 Deployment Advances......Page 42
1.1.6 Moving Toward Project Completion......Page 44
1.2 Detecting Threats......Page 45
1.2.1 Threats......Page 46
1.2.2 Example Incidents......Page 47
1.2.3 Instrumentation to Counter the Threat......Page 48
1.2.4 Specifications and Standards......Page 50
1.2.5 The Multilayer Defense......Page 51
1.3 The Necessity of Interdiction......Page 52
1.4 References......Page 55
2.1 Physics and Statistics of Radiation Sources......Page 57
2.1.1 Gamma-Ray Interactions with Matter......Page 58
2.1.2 Neutron Interactions with Matter......Page 60
2.1.3 Neutron and Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy......Page 62
2.1.4 Statistics......Page 64
2.2 Background Radiation Sources......Page 66
2.2.1 Cosmic Background......Page 67
2.2.2 Earth–Terrestrial Background......Page 77
2.2.3 Construction Materials......Page 79
2.2.4 Weather-Related Variations......Page 80
2.3 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials......Page 88
2.3.1 Radioactive Sources of Concern and Common Legitimate Sources......Page 89
2.3.2 Photon Emission Spectra from Cargo......Page 92
2.4 Scope and Impact of Medical Radioisotopes......Page 95
2.4.1 Medical Radionuclide Use......Page 96
2.4.2 Medical Radionuclide Survey Results......Page 98
2.4.3 Medical Radionuclide Decay Properties......Page 99
2.4.4 Detector Response Calculation Configurations......Page 100
2.4.6 Detector Response Modeling Results......Page 103
2.4.7 Expected Occurrence of Radionuclide Alarm Events......Page 105
2.5 Industrial Radiation Sources and Special Nuclear Materials......Page 108
2.5.1 Common Industrial Radiation Sources......Page 109
2.5.2 Special Nuclear Materials......Page 111
2.6 Electromagnetic Interference Effects......Page 112
2.6.1 Sources of Radio Frequency Interference......Page 114
2.6.2 Radio Frequency Interference......Page 115
2.6.3 Electromagnetic Pulse Effects......Page 116
2.7 References......Page 117
3.1 Radiation Detection Mechanisms......Page 122
3.1.1 Gamma-Ray Detection Mechanisms......Page 123
3.1.2 Neutron Detection Mechanisms......Page 127
3.2 Interdiction Options......Page 128
3.2.2 Instrumentation Options......Page 129
3.2.3 General Instrument Requirements......Page 130
3.2.5 Options Considered for Scanning at Land Border and Rail Crossings......Page 132
3.2.7 Options Considered for Seaport Scanning......Page 133
3.2.8 Radiation Portal Monitor Specifications......Page 135
3.3.1 Detection Technologies......Page 137
3.3.2 Radiation Portal and Area Monitors......Page 141
3.4 Imaging Systems......Page 166
3.4.1 Nonionizing Radiation Technologies for Imaging and Identification......Page 168
3.4.2 Ionizing Radiation Imaging Technologies......Page 170
3.4.3 Future of Cargo Scanning......Page 185
3.5 Active Interrogation Techniques......Page 186
3.5.1 Interrogation Techniques......Page 187
3.5.3 Active Interrogation Requirements......Page 190
3.6 References......Page 192
4.1 Modeling and Simulation......Page 194
4.1.1 Photon Detection Efficiency......Page 196
4.1.2 Specific Detector Simulations......Page 199
4.1.3 Unshielded-Source Results......Page 202
4.1.4 Spectral Distributions......Page 203
4.1.5 Vehicle Modeling......Page 206
4.1.6 Model Results for Simulated Drive-Through Scenarios......Page 209
4.1.7 Observations......Page 211
4.2 Intelligent Algorithms for Plastic Scintillator Gamma-Ray Detectors: Energy Windowing......Page 212
4.2.1 Thresholds and Nuisance Alarms......Page 213
4.2.2 Description of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material and Special Nuclear Material Signatures......Page 215
4.2.3 Algorithms for Radiation Detection......Page 216
4.3.1 Absolute Threshold Algorithm......Page 234
4.3.3 Vehicle Speed and Detector Measurement Time......Page 235
4.3.4 Tracking Algorithms for Background Suppression from Vehicles......Page 236
4.3.6 Spatial Distributions for Passenger (Noncommercial) Vehicles......Page 237
4.3.7 Spatial Optimization......Page 238
4.4 Baseline Suppression......Page 249
4.4.1 Vehicle Profiles......Page 251
4.4.2 Observations on Baseline Suppression......Page 254
4.4.3 Baseline Suppression for Energy Window Ratios......Page 255
4.5 Spectroscopic Portal Monitors (SPMs)......Page 257
4.5.1 Drivers and Requirements for Deploying Spectroscopic Portal Monitor Systems......Page 259
4.5.2 Prototype Spectroscopic Portal System......Page 260
4.5.3 Specification for Spectroscopic Portal Monitors......Page 263
4.5.4 Comparison of Thallium-Doped Sodium Iodide and High-Purity Germanium Detector Materials......Page 265
4.5.5 Advanced Spectroscopic Portal (ASP) Program......Page 266
4.5.6 Deployment Strategy......Page 267
4.6.1 Human Role in Radiation Portal Monitor Security Decision Making......Page 268
4.6.2 System Trust......Page 270
4.6.3 False and Nuisance Alarms......Page 271
4.6.4 Situational Awareness......Page 273
4.6.5 Applications to Radiation Portal Monitor Systems: The Likelihood Display Concept......Page 274
4.6.6 Distinguishing between Illicit Material and Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material: Human Factors Applications......Page 275
4.7 References......Page 277
5.1 Introduction......Page 280
5.3 Deployment Process Flow......Page 282
5.4.1 Primary Scanning......Page 283
5.4.2 Secondary Scanning......Page 287
5.4.3 Ancillary Equipment......Page 288
5.5 Seaports......Page 289
5.5.1 Primary Scanning......Page 290
5.5.3 Ancillary Equipment......Page 292
5.6.1 Primary Scanning......Page 294
5.6.2 Secondary Scanning......Page 297
5.7 International Airports......Page 299
5.7.3 Ancillary Equipment......Page 300
5.8.1 Primary Scanning......Page 301
5.8.2 Secondary Scanning......Page 302
5.9 References......Page 303
6.1 Overview of Operations for Radiation Interdiction......Page 304
6.2 Operational Impacts of Gamma-Ray Alarms......Page 307
6.3 Operational Impact of Neutron Alarms......Page 312
6.4 National Integration of Radiation Portal Monitor Data......Page 314
6.5 References......Page 316
7.1 Testing, Evaluation, and Standards......Page 318
7.2 International Atomic Energy Agency Activities......Page 322
7.3 Second Line of Defense Program......Page 325
7.3.1 Second Line of Defense Core Program......Page 326
7.3.2 Second Line of Defense Megaports Initiative......Page 327
7.4 Department of Defense Programs......Page 328
7.4.1 Joint Service Installation Pilot Project and Unconventional Nuclear Warfare Defense......Page 329
7.4.2 Installation Protection Program “Guardian”......Page 330
7.5 U.S. Department of Homeland Security’s Science and Technology, and Domestic Nuclear Detection Office Efforts......Page 332
7.6 References......Page 335
8 The Future for Interdiction of Radiological and Nuclear Threats at Borders......Page 337
8.1.1 Signatures......Page 338
8.1.2 Detectors......Page 339
8.2 Alarm Algorithms......Page 340
8.3 Signal Processing and Alarm Criteria......Page 341
8.4 Radioactive Isotope Identification......Page 342
8.7 Smaller Radiation Detection Systems......Page 343
8.8.1 Imaging......Page 344
8.8.3 Interrogation and Detection with Imaging......Page 345
8.10 Automatic Triage with Smart Alerts to Remote Centers......Page 346
8.12 Communication Standards......Page 347
8.16 Control......Page 348
8.18.2 Small-Boat Scanning......Page 349
8.19 Summary......Page 350
8.20 References......Page 351
Contributors......Page 354
A......Page 356
C......Page 357
D......Page 358
F......Page 359
I......Page 360
M......Page 362
O......Page 363
P......Page 364
R......Page 365
S......Page 366
U......Page 368
X......Page 369