Public transportation systems : principles of system design, operations planning and real-time control

Contents
Preface
About the Authors
Chapter 1. Transit Basics
	1.1. Need for Public Transportation
	1.2. Expectations and Challenges
		1.2.1. Stakeholders and Expectations
		1.2.2. Challenges
	1.3. Basic Typology of Transit Systems
		1.3.1. ROW
		1.3.2. Infrastructure
		1.3.3. Vehicles
		1.3.4. Type of Service
	1.4. Cost and Performance
		1.4.1. Costs
		1.4.2. Performance
	References
	Homework
Chapter 2. Analysis Tools
	2.1. The Time–Space Diagram
		2.1.1. A Single Vehicle
		2.1.2. Multiple Vehicles
		2.1.3. Application to Modeling and Analysis
	2.2. The Queueing Diagram
		2.2.1. Basics
		2.2.2. Interpreting Data: Smoothing, Averages and Little’s Formula
		2.2.3. Predicting Delay and Queue Evolution
	2.3. Optimization
		2.3.1. Unconstrained Optimization
		2.3.2. Constrained Optimization
	2.4. Dimensional Analysis
		2.4.1. Formula Verification
		2.4.2. Fundamental Ideas: Reformulation with Dimensionless Groups
		2.4.3. Application
	References
	Homework
	Appendix 2.A. How to Identify Maximal Sets
Chapter 3. Planning — General Ideas
	3.1. Planning Decisions
		3.1.1. Temporal Horizon
		3.1.2. Scope of the Solution Domain
		3.1.3. Modeling Philosophy
		3.1.4. The Two-Step Method: Integer vs. Continuous Variables
	3.2. Accounting for Non-Monetary Performance Outputs
		3.2.1. The Standards Approach
		3.2.2. Connection between the Lagrangian and Standards Approaches
	3.3. Demand Endogeneity
	3.4. Building Blocks for Planning
	References
	Homework
Chapter 4. Planning — Shuttle Systems
	4.1. Individual Transportation
		4.1.1. Time-Independent Demand
		4.1.2. Known Time-Dependent Demand: The Evening Commute
		4.1.3. Adaptive Demand: The Morning Commute
	4.2. Collective Transportation
		4.2.1. Time-Independent Demand
		4.2.2. Time-Dependent Demand
	4.3. Bimodal Equilibrium: Congestion Abatement by Prioritizing Transit
	References
	Homework
	Appendix 4.A. Equilibrium of the Morning Commute Problem
Chapter 5. Planning — Corridors
	5.1. Preliminary Insights: An Idealized Analysis
		5.1.1. Limits to Door-to-Door Speed: A Single Line
		5.1.2. The Effect of Access Speed: Usefulness of Hierarchies
	5.2. Single Lines: Analysis Method and Solution Properties
		5.2.1. Assumptions and Preliminary Modeling Considerations
		5.2.2. Formulation and Solution
			5.2.2.1. The Standards Problem: Solution Methodology
			5.2.2.2. Nature of the Solution
	5.3. Multiple Standards
	5.4. Multiple Lines: Hierarchical Systems
		5.4.1. Formulation and Analysis
		5.4.2. Results and Insights
	5.5. Extensions
		5.5.1. Directional Asymmetry
		5.5.2. Space- and Time-dependent Service
		5.5.3. Capacity Considerations
	References
	Homework
	Mini Project 1. Converting a Local Bus Line into Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
Chapter 6. Planning — Networks
	6.1. Idealized Analysis
		6.1.1. A Single Route: Systems without Transfers
		6.1.2. Multi-Route Systems: The Role of Transfers
	6.2. Realistic Analysis: Grids
		6.2.1. Derivation of the Generalized Cost Function
		6.2.2. Optimization and Solution Properties
			6.2.2.1. Solution when s ≤ S is not Binding
			6.2.2.2. Solution when s ≤ S is Binding and we set s = S
		6.2.3. Generalizations
	6.3. Capacity: Grids
		6.3.1. The Passenger-Carrying Capacity Constraint
		6.3.2. The Three Capacity Constraints Combined: Implications for City Size
	6.4. Other Network Structures
		6.4.1. Hub-and-Spoke Networks
			6.4.1.1. Derivations
			6.4.1.2. Performance Compared with Grids
			6.4.1.3. Optimal Design Formulas and Discussion
		6.4.2. Hybrid Networks
	6.5. Designing Real Systems
		6.5.1. The Design Procedure
		6.5.2. Real-World Case Study
			6.5.2.1. The Design Method Applied
			6.5.2.2. Real-world Benefits of Systematic Design
	6.6. Additional Topics
		6.6.1. Networks without Street Constraints
		6.6.2. Transit Synergies and the Last Mile Problem
		6.6.3. Endogenous Dwell Times and Flexible Stopping
	References
	Homework
	Mini Project 2. Designing a Transit Network
	Appendix 6.A. A Lower Bound for the Maximum Link Flow
	Appendix 6.B. Hierarchical Grid Networks
Chapter 7. Planning — Flexible Transit
	7.1. Chauffeured Vehicle Sharing: Radio-Taxis and Robo-Taxis
		7.1.1. The Physics of Taxi Service: A Queuing Model
		7.1.2. The Operator’s View: System Optimization via Standards
		7.1.3. Society’s View: Comparison with Private Autos and Collective Transit
	7.2. Non-Chauffeured Vehicle Sharing: One-Way Systems
		7.2.1. Podless, Park-Anywhere Systems
		7.2.2. Pod-based Systems
			7.2.2.1. Stochastic Effects and Redistribution Costs
	7.3. Ride-Matching and Carpooling
		7.3.1. Ride-Matching with and without Reservations
		7.3.2. Carpooling
	7.4. Demand Responsive Transit
		7.4.1. Dial-a-Ride
			7.4.1.1. DARPhysics
			7.4.1.2. Designing the System
			7.4.1.3. Society’s View
		7.4.2. Shared Taxi
		7.4.3. Comparison of Urban Transportation Modes
	7.5. Demand Responsive Transit with Established Stations and Hubs: Jitneys
		7.5.1. Waiting Times under Adaptive Dispatching
			7.5.1.1. Hard Targets
			7.5.1.2. Soft Targets
	7.6. Closing Comments: Technology and the Future of Transit
	References
	Homework
	Appendix 7.A. Expected Distance to the Closest of n Random Points
	Appendix 7.B. The Expected Fraction of Feasible Matches
Chapter 8. Management — Vehicle Fleets
	8.1. Introduction
	8.2. Schedule Covering: One Bus Route with a Single Terminus
		8.2.1. Fleet Size: Graphical Analysis
		8.2.2. Fleet Size: Numerical Analysis
		8.2.3. Multiple Bus Types
		8.2.4. Terminus Location
		8.2.5. Run Determination
	8.3. Schedule Covering for N Bus Routes
		8.3.1. Single Terminus Close to the Depot
		8.3.2. Dispersed Termini and Deadheading Heuristics
		8.3.3. Discussion: Effects of Deadheading and Pooling
	References
	Homework
	Appendix 8.A: Proof–LIFO and Greedy Methods use Fewest Buses
	Appendix 8.B: The “Vehicle Routing Problem” and Meta-Heuristics
		8.B.1. The Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP)
		8.B.2. Local Searches and Meta-Heuristics
		8.B.3. The Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP)
Chapter 9. Management — Staffing
	9.1. Introduction
	9.2. Independent Runs
		9.2.1. A Worst-Case Compensation Structure
		9.2.2. Overtime
		9.2.3. Multiple Shift Types
	9.3. Multiple Runs
		9.3.1. Solution Algorithm
		9.3.2. A Lower Bound to Cost
	9.4. Staffing
		9.4.1. Populating Shifts with Salaried Employees
			9.4.1.1. A Unique Shift Type
			9.4.1.2. Two Shift Types
			9.4.1.3. Dealing with Absenteeism
	References
	Homework
	Mini Project 3. Fleet and Crew Management
	Appendix 9.A. Combining Driver Types to Cover a Run
Chapter 10. Operations — Reliable Transit Service
	10.1. How Unreliability Affects Transit Users
		10.1.1. Passengers without Appointments, Unscheduled Service
		10.1.2. Passengers without Appointments, Scheduled Service
		10.1.3. Passengers with Appointments, Unscheduled Service
		10.1.4. Passengers with Appointments, Scheduled Service
	10.2. Systems of Systems
		10.2.1. Single-Agent Systems
		10.2.2. Multi-Agent Systems
	10.3. Uncontrolled Bus Motion
		10.3.1. The Ideal Deterministic Operation
		10.3.2. Uncontrolled Bus Motion
	10.4. Control by Schedule
		10.4.1. System Dynamics with Schedule Control
		10.4.2. Setting the Slack and the Control Point Separations
	10.5. Multi-Bus Control Strategies
		10.5.1. Basic Algorithms
			10.5.1.1. Frequency-Based Systems
			10.5.1.2. Scheduled Systems
		10.5.2. Robust Control
	10.6. Practical Considerations
	10.7. Field Studies and Human Factors
		10.7.1. The Simple Control: Evidence from Dbus (San Sebastian, Spain)
		10.7.2. The Robust Control: Evidence from OTS (Honolulu, Hawaii)
	10.8. Remedial Measures
		10.8.1. Terminus Strategies
		10.8.2. Speeding-up Individual Buses
		10.8.3. More Drastic Strategies
	References
	Homework
	Mini Project 4. Designing Control Strategies to Mitigate Bus Bunching
Chapter 11. Epilogue: Economics and Pricing
	11.1. Decomposition
	11.2. Economics
		11.2.1. An Ideal Agency
		11.2.2. Realistic Agencies
		11.2.3. How to Encourage Agencies to Perform for the Public Good
			11.2.3.1. Unlimited Subsidies
			11.2.3.2. Finite Subsidies
			11.2.3.3. A Generalization to Include Externalities
	Homework
Index