Psychology: frontiers and applications

Copyright......Page 2
ABOUT THE AUTHORS......Page 3
PREFACE......Page 14
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 19
CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOUR......Page 21
 The Nature of Psychology......Page 22
  Psychology’s Scientific Approach......Page 24
  Thinking Critically about Behaviour......Page 25
  Psychology’s Goals......Page 27
  Psychology’s Broad Scope: A Simple Framework......Page 28
 Perspectives on Behaviour......Page 29
  Psychology’s Intellectual Roots......Page 30
  The Psychodynamic Perspective: The Forces Within......Page 31
  The Behavioural Perspective: The Power of the Environment......Page 33
  The Humanistic Perspective: Self-Actualization and Positive Psychology......Page 34
  The Cognitive Perspective: The Thinking Human......Page 35
  The Sociocultural Perspective: The Embedded Human......Page 37
  The Biological Perspective: The Brain, Genes, and Evolution......Page 38
 Research Foundations Would You Marry Someone You Didn’t Love?......Page 39
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Imaging Studies......Page 41
 Using Levels of Analysis to Integrate the Perspectives......Page 42
  An Example: Understanding Depression......Page 43
 Frontiers Culture, Language, and Behaviour......Page 44
  Summary of Major Themes......Page 46
 Psychology Today......Page 48
 Applications Academic Performance Enhancement Strategies......Page 50
CHAPTER 2 STUDYING BEHAVIOUR SCIENTIFICALLY......Page 54
  Gathering Evidence: Steps in the Scientific Process......Page 55
  Two Approaches to Understanding Behaviour......Page 57
  Defining and Measuring Variables......Page 58
 Methods of Research......Page 61
  Descriptive Research: Recording Events......Page 62
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of the Human Brain at Work......Page 63
  Correlational Research: Measuring Associations between Events......Page 66
  Experiments: Examining Cause and Effect......Page 69
 Research Foundations Very Happy People......Page 70
  Confounding of Variables......Page 74
  Placebo Effects......Page 76
  Replicating and Generalizing the Findings......Page 77
 Frontiers Does ESP Exist?......Page 79
  Ethical Standards in Human Research......Page 80
  Ethical Standards in Animal Research......Page 81
 Critical Thinking in Science and Everyday Life......Page 82
 Applications Evaluating Claims in Research and Everyday Life......Page 83
CHAPTER 3 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOUR......Page 85
  Neurons......Page 86
  The Electrical Activity of Neurons......Page 87
  How Neurons Communicate: Synaptic Transmission......Page 89
 Applications Understanding How Drugs Affect Your Brain......Page 93
  The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 94
  The Central Nervous System......Page 96
  The Hierarchical Brain: Structures and Behavioural Functions......Page 100
 Research Foundations Wilder Penfield and a Cortical Map......Page 101
 Frontiers Human Aggression, Criminal Behaviour, and the Frontal Cortex......Page 113
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Music......Page 119
CHAPTER 4 GENES, EVOLUTION, AND BEHAVIOUR......Page 123
  Chromosomes and Genes......Page 124
  Behaviour Genetics Techniques......Page 126
 Applications Gene Therapy and Genetic Counselling......Page 129
  Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence......Page 131
  Biological Reaction Range, the Environment, Personality, and Intelligence......Page 132
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience and Genetics of Dyslexia......Page 133
  Evolution of Adaptive Mechanisms......Page 139
  Evolution and Human Nature......Page 141
  Evolutionary Psychology......Page 143
 Research Foundations Gender Differences in the Ideal Mate......Page 147
 How Not to Think about Behaviour Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology......Page 152
 Frontiers Heritability, Evolution, and Politics......Page 153
CHAPTER 5 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION......Page 156
 Sensory Processes......Page 158
  Signal Detection Theory......Page 159
  The Difference Threshold......Page 160
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Subliminal Perception and Prosopagnosia......Page 161
  Sensory Adaptation......Page 162
  Vision......Page 163
  Audition......Page 171
  Taste and Smell: The Chemical Senses......Page 176
  The Skin and Body Senses......Page 177
 Frontiers Sensory Prosthetics: Restoring Lost Function......Page 181
  Perception Is Selective: The Role of Attention......Page 184
  Perceptions Have Organization and Structure......Page 186
  Perception Involves Hypothesis Testing......Page 187
  Perception Is Influenced by Expectations: Perceptual Sets......Page 188
  Stimuli Are Recognizable under Changing Conditions: Perceptual Constancies......Page 189
 Perception of Depth, Distance, and Movement......Page 190
  Depth and Distance Perception......Page 191
 Illusions: False Perceptual Hypotheses......Page 192
 Applications Mona Lisa’s Smile......Page 195
  Cross-Cultural Research on Perception......Page 196
 Research Foundations Critical Periods: The Role of Early Experience......Page 198
  Restored Sensory Capacity......Page 199
CHAPTER 6 STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS......Page 202
  Measuring States of Consciousness......Page 204
  Levels of Consciousness: Psychodynamic and Cognitive Perspectives......Page 205
 Frontiers Detecting Awareness......Page 206
  The Neural Basis of Consciousness......Page 207
  Keeping Time: Brain and Environment......Page 209
  Environmental Disruptions of Circadian Rhythms......Page 210
 Applications Outsmarting Winter Depression, Jet Lag, and Night Shiftwork Disruptions......Page 212
  Stages of Sleep......Page 213
  Getting a Night’s Sleep: Brain and Environment......Page 215
  How Much Do We Sleep?......Page 216
  Why Do We Sleep?......Page 217
  Sleep Disorders......Page 219
  The Nature of Dreams......Page 221
 Drugs and Altered Consciousness......Page 225
  Drugs and the Brain......Page 226
  Tolerance and Withdrawal......Page 227
  Depressants......Page 228
 Research Foundations Drinking and Driving: Decision Making in Altered States......Page 230
  Stimulants......Page 231
  Opiates......Page 232
  Hallucinogens......Page 233
  From Genes to Culture: Determinants of Drug Effects......Page 234
  Hypnotic Behaviours and Experiences......Page 237
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Meditation......Page 238
  Theories of Hypnosis......Page 242
 Some Final Thoughts......Page 244
CHAPTER 7 LEARNING AND ADAPTATION: THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE......Page 246
  How Do We Learn? The Search for Mechanisms......Page 247
  Habituation and Sensitization......Page 248
  Pavlov’s Pioneering Research......Page 249
  Basic Principles......Page 250
  Applications of Classical Conditioning......Page 253
 Applications Learning, Virtual Reality, and Therapy......Page 255
 Operant Conditioning: Learning through Consequences......Page 257
  Skinner’s Analysis of Operant Conditioning......Page 258
  Antecedent Conditions: Identifying When to Respond......Page 259
  Consequences: Determining How to Respond......Page 260
  Shaping and Chaining: Taking One Step at a Time......Page 263
  Schedules of Reinforcement......Page 264
  Escape and Avoidance Conditioning......Page 267
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Fear Conditioning......Page 268
  Applications of Operant Conditioning......Page 269
 Biology and Learning......Page 271
  Constraints on Classical Conditioning: Learned Taste Aversions......Page 272
  Are We Biologically Prepared to Fear Certain Things?......Page 273
  Learning and the Brain......Page 274
  Insight and Cognitive Maps......Page 275
  Cognition in Operant Conditioning......Page 277
 Frontiers Animal Cognition......Page 278
  Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory......Page 281
 Research Foundations Using Social-Cognitive Learning Theory to Prevent AIDS: A National Experiment......Page 284
CHAPTER 8 MEMORY......Page 286
 Memory as Information Processing......Page 287
  A Three-Component Model......Page 288
 Research Foundations In Search of the Icon......Page 289
  Levels of Processing: When Deeper Is Better......Page 293
  Exposure and Rehearsal......Page 294
  Organization and Imagery......Page 295
  How Prior Knowledge Shapes Encoding......Page 297
  Memory as a Network......Page 298
  Types of Long-Term Memory......Page 299
  The Value of Multiple and Self-Generated Cues......Page 301
  The Value of Distinctiveness......Page 302
  Context, State, and Mood Effects on Memory......Page 303
  Why Do We Forget?......Page 305
 Applications Improving Memory and Academic Learning......Page 306
  Amnesia......Page 309
  Forgetting to Do Things: Prospective Memory......Page 311
  Memory Distortion and Schemas......Page 312
  The Misinformation Effect and Eyewitness Testimony......Page 313
  The “Recovered Memory” Controversy: Repression or Reconstruction?......Page 314
 Frontiers How Accurate Are Young Children’s Memories?......Page 315
 The Biology of Memory......Page 317
  Sensory and Working Memory......Page 318
  Long-Term Memory......Page 319
  Long-Term Potentiation......Page 320
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Retrieving Accurate and Fabricated Memories......Page 321
CHAPTER 9 LANGUAGE AND THINKING......Page 324
  Adaptive Functions of Language......Page 325
  Properties of Language......Page 326
  The Structure of Language......Page 327
  Understanding and Producing Language......Page 328
  Acquiring a First Language......Page 332
  Bilingualism: Learning a Second Language......Page 335
  Linguistic Influences on Thinking......Page 337
 Focus on Neuroscience The Bilingual Brain......Page 338
 Frontiers Can Animals Acquire Human Language?......Page 340
  Thought, Brain, and Mind......Page 343
  Reasoning......Page 344
  Problem Solving......Page 346
  Knowledge, Expertise, and Wisdom......Page 352
 Applications Guidelines for Creative Problem Solving......Page 353
  Mental Imagery......Page 356
  Metacognition: Knowing Your Own Cognitive Abilities......Page 358
 Research Foundations “Why Did I Get That Wrong?” Improving Students’ Awareness of Whether They Understand Text Material......Page 359
CHAPTER 10 INTELLIGENCE......Page 364
  Alfred Binet’s Mental Tests......Page 366
  The Psychometric Approach: The Structure of Intellect......Page 368
  Cognitive Process Approaches: The Nature of Intelligent Thinking......Page 372
  Broader Conceptions of Intelligence: Beyond Mental Competencies......Page 374
 The Measurement of Intelligence......Page 376
  Theory-Based Intelligence Tests......Page 377
  Psychometric Standards for Intelligence Tests......Page 378
  Assessing Intelligence in Non-Western Cultures......Page 383
 Focus on Neuroscience Brain Size and Intelligence......Page 384
 Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence......Page 386
  Ethnic Group Differences......Page 387
 Applications Early-Childhood Interventions: A Means of Boosting Intelligence?......Page 388
  Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities......Page 391
  The Intellectually Gifted......Page 392
 Research Foundations Effects of Hormonal Fluctuations on Perceptual and Motor Skills......Page 393
  The Intellectually Disabled......Page 395
  A Concluding Thought......Page 397
CHAPTER 11 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION......Page 400
  Homeostasis and Drive Theory......Page 401
  Incentive and Expectancy Theories......Page 402
  Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories......Page 403
  The Physiology of Hunger......Page 405
 Frontiers Excessive Exercise: Activity Anorexia......Page 408
  Psychological Aspects of Hunger......Page 410
  Environmental and Cultural Factors......Page 411
  Obesity......Page 413
 Applications The Battle to Control Eating and Weight......Page 414
  Sexual Behaviour: Patterns and Changes......Page 415
  The Physiology of Sex......Page 416
  Cultural and Environmental Influences......Page 418
  Sexual Orientation......Page 421
  The Thrill of Victory, the Agony of Defeat......Page 423
  Achievement Goal Theory......Page 424
  Achievement Needs and Situational Factors......Page 425
 Motivational Conflict......Page 426
  The Adaptive Value of Emotion......Page 428
  The Nature of Emotion......Page 429
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Affective Style......Page 434
  The James-Lange Somatic Theory......Page 440
  The Cannon-Bard Theory......Page 441
  Cognitive-Affective Theories......Page 442
 Research Foundations Cognition-Arousal Relations......Page 445
CHAPTER 12 DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFESPAN......Page 449
  Genetics and Sex Determination......Page 451
  Environmental Influences......Page 452
  The Amazing Newborn......Page 453
  Sensory-Perceptual Development......Page 455
  Physical, Brain, and Motor Development......Page 456
  Cognitive Development......Page 458
  Social-Emotional and Personality Development......Page 465
 Frontiers Social Media and Social Development......Page 468
 Applications Understanding How Divorce and Remarriage Affect Children......Page 473
  Moral Development......Page 475
  Physical Development......Page 478
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of the Teenage Brain......Page 480
  Cognitive Development......Page 481
  Social-Emotional and Personality Development......Page 485
 Research Foundations What Does It Take to Become an Adult?......Page 488
CHAPTER 13 BEHAVIOUR IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT......Page 495
  Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behaviour......Page 496
  Forming and Maintaining Impressions......Page 499
  Attitudes and Attitude Change......Page 501
  The Mere Presence of Others......Page 505
  Social Norms: The Rules of the Game......Page 506
  Conformity and Obedience......Page 507
 Research Foundations The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority......Page 510
  Crowd Behaviour and Deindividuation......Page 514
  Group Influences on Performance and Decision Making......Page 515
  Affiliation and Interpersonal Attraction......Page 518
  Love......Page 523
  Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 524
 Applications Making Close Relationships Work: Lessons from Psychological Research......Page 525
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Stereotyping......Page 527
  Prosocial Behaviour: Helping Others......Page 531
  Aggression: Harming Others......Page 534
 Frontiers Do Violent Video Games Promote Aggression?......Page 540
CHAPTER 14 PERSONALITY......Page 543
 The Psychodynamic Perspective......Page 544
  Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory......Page 545
  Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theory......Page 550
  George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory......Page 552
  Carl Rogers’s Self Theory......Page 553
  Research on the Self......Page 555
  Evaluating Humanistic Theories......Page 557
 Trait and Biological Perspectives......Page 558
  Eysenck’s Extraversion-Stability Model......Page 559
  The Five Factor Model......Page 560
  Biological Foundations of Personality Traits......Page 561
  The Stability of Personality Traits......Page 562
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of the Big Five......Page 563
 Social Cognitive Theories......Page 565
  Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, and Locus of Control......Page 566
  Albert Bandura: The Social Cognitive Perspective and Self-Efficacy......Page 567
 Research Foundations Albert Bandura, Human Agency, and the Social Cognitive Perspective......Page 568
 Applications Increasing Self-Efficacy through Systematic Goal Setting......Page 571
  Walter Mischel: The Consistency Paradox and If . . . Then . . . Behaviour Consistencies......Page 572
 Personality Assessment......Page 573
  Remote Behaviour Sampling......Page 575
  Personality Scales......Page 576
  Projective Tests......Page 577
  Personality Theory and Personality Assessment......Page 579
CHAPTER 15 STRESS, COPING, AND HEALTH......Page 582
 The Nature of Stress......Page 583
  The Stress Response......Page 584
  Chronic Stress and the GAS......Page 585
 Stress and Health......Page 587
  Stress and Psychological Well-Being......Page 588
  Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)......Page 589
  Stress and Illness......Page 590
  Social Support......Page 592
  Coping Self-Efficacy......Page 593
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Social Support......Page 594
  Personality Factors......Page 596
  Finding Meaning in Stressful Life Events......Page 597
 Coping with Stress......Page 598
 Research Foundations Stress, Physical Contact, and Health: I Wanna Hold Your Hand......Page 599
  Effectiveness of Coping Strategies......Page 601
  Bottling Up Feelings: The Costs of Constraint......Page 602
 Frontiers Mindfulness and the Stresses of Teaching......Page 603
 Health Promotion and Illness Prevention......Page 604
  How People Change: The Transtheoretical Model......Page 606
  Increasing Behaviours That Enhance Health......Page 607
  Reducing Behaviours That Impair Health......Page 609
 Combatting Substance Abuse......Page 611
  Psychological Approaches to Treatment and Prevention......Page 612
 Positive Psychology......Page 616
 Applications How to Be Happy......Page 617
CHAPTER 16 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS......Page 620
  What Is “Abnormal”?......Page 621
 Historical Perspectives on Deviant Behaviour......Page 622
  DSM-5: Integrating Categorical and Dimensional Approaches......Page 625
  Critical Issues in Diagnostic Labelling......Page 627
 Research Foundations On Being Sane in Insane Places......Page 628
 Anxiety Disorders......Page 629
  Phobic Disorder......Page 630
  Panic Disorder......Page 631
  Causal Factors in Anxiety Disorders and OCD......Page 632
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder......Page 633
  Eating Disorders......Page 636
 Mood (Affective) Disorders......Page 638
  Depression......Page 639
  Prevalence and Course of Mood Disorders......Page 640
  Causal Factors in Mood Disorders......Page 641
 Applications Understanding and Preventing Suicide......Page 645
 Somatic Symptom Disorders......Page 646
 Dissociative Disorders......Page 649
  Characteristics of Schizophrenia......Page 650
 Frontiers Dissociative Identity Disorder: A Clinical and Scientific Puzzle......Page 651
  Subtypes of Schizophrenia......Page 653
  Causal Factors in Schizophrenia......Page 654
  Antisocial Personality Disorder......Page 658
  Borderline Personality Disorder......Page 661
  Childhood Disorders......Page 662
  Dementia in Old Age......Page 665
 A Closing Thought......Page 666
CHAPTER 17 TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS......Page 668
 The Helping Relationship......Page 669
  Psychoanalysis......Page 670
  Brief Psychodynamic Therapies......Page 672
  Client-Centred Therapy......Page 674
  Gestalt Therapy......Page 675
  Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Therapy......Page 677
  Beck’s Cognitive Therapy......Page 678
  Classical Conditioning Treatments......Page 679
 Focus on Neuroscience The Neuroscience of Treating Unipolar Depression......Page 680
 Frontiers Virtual Reality as a Therapeutic Technique......Page 682
  Operant Conditioning Treatments......Page 684
  Mindfulness-Based Treatments......Page 686
  Cultural Factors in Treatment Utilization......Page 689
  Gender Issues in Therapy......Page 690
  Psychotherapy Research Methods......Page 691
  Factors Affecting the Outcome of Therapy......Page 695
  Drug Therapies......Page 697
 Research Foundations Drug versus Psychological Treatments for Depression: A Randomized Clinical Trial......Page 698
  Electroconvulsive Therapy......Page 701
  Mind, Body, and Therapeutic Interventions......Page 702
  Deinstitutionalization......Page 704
  Preventive Mental Health......Page 705
 A Final Word......Page 707
 Applications When and Where to Seek Therapy......Page 708
APPENDIX: STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY......Page 711
ANSWERS TO THINKING CRITICALLY......Page 719
CREDITS......Page 727
GLOSSARY......Page 729
REFERENCES......Page 744
NAME INDEX......Page 802
SUBJECT INDEX......Page 816
Endsheet......Page 833