Psychology: frontiers and applications

COVER......Page 1
TITLE......Page 2
COPYRIGHT......Page 3
BRIEF CONTENTS......Page 5
CONTENTS......Page 6
PREFACE......Page 15
CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOUR......Page 20
 The Nature of Psychology......Page 21
  Psychology's Scientific Approach......Page 23
  Thinking Critically about Behaviour......Page 25
  Psychology's Broad Scope: A Simple Framework......Page 27
  Psychology's Intellectual Roots......Page 29
  Early Schools: Structuralism and Functionalism......Page 30
  The Psychodynamic Perspective: The Forces Within......Page 31
  The Behavioural Perspective: The Power of the Environment......Page 32
  The Humanistic Perspective: Self-Actualization and Positive Psychology......Page 34
  The Cognitive Perspective: The Thinking Human......Page 35
  The Sociocultural Perspective: The Embedded Human......Page 37
  The Biological Perspective: The Brain, Genes, and Evolution......Page 39
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Neuroscience of Imaging Studies......Page 41
 Using Levels of Analysis to Integrate The Perspectives......Page 43
 Frontiers: Culture, Language, and Behaviour......Page 45
  An Example: Understanding Depression......Page 46
 Psychology Today......Page 48
 Applications: Academic Performance Enhancement Strategies......Page 51
CHAPTER 2 STUDYING BEHAVIOUR SCIENTIFICALLY......Page 55
  Scientific Attitudes......Page 56
 Research Foundations: Bystander Intervention......Page 57
  Gathering Evidence: Steps in the Scientific Process......Page 58
  Two Approaches to Understanding Behaviour......Page 59
  Defining and Measuring Variables......Page 60
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Neuroscience of the Human Brain at Work......Page 64
  Descriptive Research: Recording Events......Page 65
  Correlational Research: Measuring Associations between Events......Page 69
  Experiments: Examining Cause and Effect......Page 72
  Confounding of Variables......Page 77
  Placebo Effects......Page 78
  Experimenter Expectancy Effects......Page 79
  Replicating and Generalizing the Findings......Page 80
 Frontiers: Does Esp Exist?......Page 81
  Ethical Standards in Human Research......Page 82
  Ethical Standards in Animal Research......Page 84
 Applications: Evaluating Claims in Research and Everyday Life......Page 85
CHAPTER 3 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOUR......Page 88
  Neurons......Page 89
  The Electrical Activity of Neurons......Page 90
  How Neurons Communicate: Synaptic Transmission......Page 92
 Applications: Understanding How Drugs Affect Your Brain......Page 95
  The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 98
  The Central Nervous System......Page 100
 Research Foundations: Wilder Penfield and a Cortical Map......Page 102
  The Hierarchical Brain: Structures and Behavioural Functions......Page 106
 Frontiers: Mirror Neurons and Autism Spectrum Disorder......Page 116
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Neuroscience of Music......Page 122
CHAPTER 5 GENES, EVOLUTION, AND BEHAVIOUR......Page 126
  Chromosomes and Genes......Page 127
 Focus on Neuroscience: Early Experience, Epigenetics, and Adolescence......Page 130
  Behaviour Genetics Techniques......Page 131
 Applications: Gene Therapy and Genetic Counselling......Page 132
  Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence......Page 137
  Biological Reaction Range, the Environment, Personality, and Intelligence......Page 138
  Evolution of Adaptive Mechanisms......Page 143
  Evolution and Human Nature......Page 145
  Evolutionary Psychology......Page 147
 Frontiers: Heritability, Evolution, and Politics......Page 148
 Research Foundations: Gender Differences in the Ideal Mate......Page 152
 How Not to Think about Behaviour Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology......Page 157
CHAPTER 5 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION......Page 160
 Sensory Processes......Page 162
  Signal Detection Theory......Page 163
 Focus on NeuroscienceThe Neuroscience of Subliminal Perception and Prosopagnosia......Page 164
  The Difference Threshold......Page 166
  Sensory Adaptation......Page 167
  Vision......Page 168
  Audition......Page 177
  Taste and Smell: The Chemical Senses......Page 181
  The Skin and Body Senses......Page 183
 Frontiers: Sensory Prosthetics: Restoring Lost Function......Page 186
 Perception: The Creation of Experience......Page 189
  Perception Is Selective: The Role of Attention......Page 190
  Perceptions Have Organization and Structure......Page 192
  Perception Involves Hypothesis Testing......Page 194
  Perception Is Influenced by Expectations: Perceptual Sets......Page 195
  Stimuli Are Recognizable under Changing Conditions: Perceptual Constancies......Page 196
  Depth and Distance Perception......Page 198
  Perception of Movement......Page 199
 Illusions: False Perceptual Hypotheses......Page 200
 Experience, Critical Periods, and Perceptual Development......Page 203
 Research Foundations: Critical Periods: The Role of Early Experience......Page 204
  Cross-Cultural Research on Perception......Page 206
  Restored Sensory Capacity......Page 207
CHAPTER 6 STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS......Page 210
 The Puzzle of Consciousness......Page 211
  Levels of Consciousness: Psychodynamic and Cognitive Perspectives......Page 212
 Frontiers: Detecting Awareness......Page 213
  The Neural Basis of Consciousness......Page 215
 Circadian Rhythms: Our Daily Biological Clocks......Page 216
  Keeping Time: Brain and Environment......Page 217
  Environmental Disruptions of Circadian Rhythms......Page 219
  Stages of Sleep......Page 220
  How Much Do We Sleep?......Page 223
  Sleep Deprivation......Page 224
 Applications: A Good Night's Sleep......Page 225
  Why Do We Sleep?......Page 226
  Sleep Disorders......Page 227
  The Nature of Dreams......Page 229
 Focus on Neuroscience: Dreams and Daydreams......Page 232
  Drugs and the Brain......Page 236
  Tolerance and Withdrawal......Page 237
  Depressants......Page 239
 Research Foundations: Drinking and Driving: Decision Making in Altered States......Page 241
  Stimulants......Page 242
  Opiates......Page 244
  Marijuana......Page 245
  From Genes to Culture: Determinants of Drug Effects......Page 246
  Hypnotic Behaviours and Experiences......Page 249
  Theories of Hypnosis......Page 251
 Some Final Thoughts......Page 253
CHAPTER 7 LEARNING AND ADAPTATION: THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE......Page 255
  How Do We Learn? The Search for Mechanisms......Page 256
  Habituation and Sensitization......Page 257
 Classical Conditioning: Associating One Stimulus with Another......Page 258
  Basic Principles......Page 259
  Applications: of Classical Conditioning......Page 262
 Applications: Learning, Virtual Reality, and Therapy......Page 265
 Operant Conditioning: Learning through Consequences......Page 266
  Skinner's Analysis of Operant Conditioning......Page 267
  Consequences: Determining How to Respond......Page 269
  Generalization and Discrimination......Page 273
  Schedules of Reinforcement......Page 274
  Escape and Avoidance Conditioning......Page 277
  Applications: of Operant Conditioning......Page 278
  Constraints on Classical Conditioning: Learned Taste Aversions......Page 280
  Are We Biologically Prepared to Fear Certain Things?......Page 281
  Learning and the Brain......Page 282
  Insight and Cognitive Maps......Page 283
  Cognition in Classical Conditioning......Page 285
 Frontiers: Animal Cognition......Page 287
  Cognition in Operant Conditioning......Page 288
 Observational Learning: When Others Pave The Way......Page 289
  Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory......Page 290
 Research Foundations: Using Social-Cognitive Learning Theory to Prevent AIDS: A National Experiment......Page 293
CHAPTER 8 MEMORY......Page 295
 Memory as Information Processing......Page 296
  A Three-Component Model......Page 297
 Research Foundations: In Search of the Icon......Page 298
  Effortful and Automatic Processing......Page 302
  Exposure and Rehearsal......Page 303
  Organization and Imagery......Page 304
  How Prior Knowledge Shapes Encoding......Page 306
  Memory as a Network......Page 308
  Types of Long-Term Memory......Page 309
  The Value of Multiple and Self-Generated Cues......Page 311
  The Value of Distinctiveness......Page 312
  Context, State, and Mood Effects on Memory......Page 313
 Applications: Improving Memory and Academic Learning......Page 315
  The Course of Forgetting......Page 316
  Why Do We Forget?......Page 317
  Amnesia......Page 319
  Forgetting to Do Things: Prospective Memory......Page 321
 Frontiers: Methods to Enhance Memory......Page 322
  Memory Distortion and Schemas......Page 323
  The Misinformation Effect and Eyewitness Testimony......Page 325
  The "Recovered Memory" Controversy: Repression or Reconstruction?......Page 326
  Sensory and Working Memory......Page 328
  Long-Term Memory......Page 329
 Focus on Neuroscience: How Are Memories Formed?......Page 330
CHAPTER 9 LANGUAGE AND THINKING......Page 333
  Adaptive Functions of Language......Page 334
  Properties of Language......Page 335
  The Structure of Language......Page 336
  Understanding and Producing Language......Page 337
  Acquiring a First Language......Page 342
  Bilingualism: Learning a Second Language......Page 344
  Linguistic Influences on Thinking......Page 347
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Bilingual Brain......Page 348
 Frontiers: Can Animals Acquire Human Language?......Page 350
  Thought, Brain, and Mind......Page 353
  Reasoning......Page 354
  Problem Solving......Page 357
  Knowledge, Expertise, and Wisdom......Page 363
 Applications: Guidelines for Creative Problem Solving......Page 364
  Mental Imagery......Page 366
  Metacognition: Knowing Your Own Cognitive Abilities......Page 369
 Research Foundations: "Why Did I Get That Wrong?" Improving Students' Awareness of Whether They Understand Text Material......Page 370
CHAPTER 10 INTELLIGENCE......Page 375
  Alfred Binet's Mental Tests......Page 377
  Binet's Legacy: An Intelligence-Testing Industry Emerges......Page 379
  The Psychometric Approach: The Structure of Intellect......Page 380
  Cognitive Process Approaches: The Nature of Intelligent Thinking......Page 384
  Broader Conceptions of Intelligence: Beyond Mental Competencies......Page 386
 The Measurement of Intelligence......Page 389
  Should We Test for Aptitude or Achievement?......Page 390
  Psychometric Standards for Intelligence Tests......Page 391
  Assessing Intelligence in Non-Western Cultures......Page 396
 Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence......Page 398
 Applications: Early-Childhood Interventions: A Means of Boosting Intelligence?......Page 401
  Ethnic Group Differences......Page 403
  Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities......Page 405
 Research Foundations: Effects of Hormonal Fluctuations on Perceptual and Motor Skills......Page 407
  The Intellectually Gifted......Page 408
  The Intellectually Disabled......Page 409
  A Concluding Thought......Page 412
CHAPTER 11 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION......Page 414
  Homeostasis and Drive Theory......Page 415
  Incentive and Expectancy Theories......Page 416
  Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories......Page 417
  The Physiology of Hunger......Page 419
 Focus on Neuroscience: Brain Activation and Food Cues......Page 423
  Psychological Aspects of Hunger......Page 424
  Environmental and Cultural Factors......Page 426
  Obesity......Page 427
 Applications: The Battle to Control Eating and Weight......Page 429
  Sexual Behaviour: Patterns and Changes......Page 430
  The Physiology of Sex......Page 431
  Cultural and Environmental Influences......Page 433
  Sexual Orientation......Page 436
  Achievement Goal Theory......Page 439
  Family and Cultural Influences......Page 441
 Motivational Conflict......Page 442
 The Nature and Functions of Emotion......Page 443
  The Adaptive Value of Emotion......Page 444
  The Nature of Emotion......Page 445
 Frontiers: A New Emotion?......Page 455
  The Cannon-Bard Theory......Page 457
  Cognitive-Affective Theories......Page 459
 Research Foundations: Cognition-Arousal Relations......Page 461
CHAPTER 12 DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFESPAN......Page 466
  Genetics and Sex Determination......Page 468
  Environmental Influences......Page 469
 Infancy and Childhood......Page 470
  The Amazing Newborn......Page 471
  Sensory-Perceptual Development......Page 473
  Physical, Brain, and Motor Development......Page 474
  Cognitive Development......Page 476
  Social-Emotional and Personality Development......Page 484
 Frontiers: Social Media and Social Development......Page 485
 Applications: Understanding How Divorce and Remarriage Affect Children......Page 492
  Moral Development......Page 494
 Adolescence and Adulthood......Page 497
  Physical Development......Page 498
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Neuroscience of the Teenage Brain......Page 500
  Cognitive Development......Page 502
  Social-Emotional and Personality Development......Page 506
 Research Foundations: What Does It Take to Become an Adult?......Page 509
CHAPTER 13 BEHAVIOUR IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT......Page 517
  Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behaviour......Page 518
  Forming and Maintaining Impressions......Page 522
  Attitudes and Attitude Change......Page 523
  The Mere Presence of Others......Page 528
  Social Norms: The Rules of the Game......Page 529
  Conformity and Obedience......Page 530
 Research Foundations: The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority......Page 533
  Crowd Behaviour and Deindividuation......Page 537
  Group Influences on Performance and Decision Making......Page 538
  Affiliation and Interpersonal Attraction......Page 542
  Love......Page 547
  Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 548
 Applications:Making Close Relationships Work: Lessons from Psychological Research......Page 549
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Neuroscience of Stereotyping......Page 551
  Prosocial Behaviour: Helping Others......Page 555
  Aggression: Harming Others......Page 559
 Frontiers: Do Violent Video Games Promote Aggression?......Page 564
CHAPTER 14 PERSONALITY......Page 568
 The Psychodynamic Perspective......Page 569
  Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory......Page 570
 Frontiers: Attachment Style and Abusive Romantic Relationships......Page 575
  Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theory......Page 576
 The Humanistic Perspective......Page 577
  Carl Rogers's Self Theory......Page 578
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Neurobiology of the Self......Page 581
  Research on the Self......Page 584
  Evaluating Humanistic Theories......Page 585
  Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factors......Page 586
  Eysenck's Extraversion-Stability Model......Page 587
  The Five Factor Model......Page 588
  Traits and Behaviour Prediction......Page 589
  The Stability of Personality Traits......Page 590
 Social Cognitive Theories......Page 592
  Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, and Locus of Control......Page 593
  Albert Bandura: The Social Cognitive Perspective and Self-Efficacy......Page 594
 Research Foundations: Albert Bandura, Human Agency, and the Social Cognitive Perspective......Page 595
 Applications:Increasing Self-Efficacy through Systematic Goal Setting......Page 597
  Evaluating Social Cognitive Theories......Page 600
 Personality Assessment......Page 601
  Interviews......Page 602
  Remote Behaviour Sampling......Page 603
  Personality Scales......Page 604
  Projective Tests......Page 605
  Personality Theory and Personality Assessment......Page 608
CHAPTER 15 STRESS, COPING, AND HEALTH......Page 610
 The Nature of Stress......Page 611
  Stressors......Page 612
  The Stress Response......Page 613
  Chronic Stress and the GAS......Page 614
  Stress and Psychological Well-Being......Page 616
  Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)......Page 617
  Stress and Illness......Page 618
 Vulnerability and Protective Factors......Page 620
  Social Support......Page 621
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Neuroscience of Social Support......Page 622
  Hardiness......Page 623
  Optimism......Page 624
  Personality Factors......Page 625
  Finding Meaning in Stressful Life Events......Page 626
 Coping with Stress......Page 627
  Effectiveness of Coping Strategies......Page 628
 Research Foundations: Stress, Physical Contact, and Health: I Wanna Hold Your Hand......Page 629
 Frontiers: Mindfulness and the Stresses of Teaching......Page 631
  Bottling Up Feelings: The Costs of Constraint......Page 632
  Gender, Culture, and Coping......Page 633
 Health Promotion and Illness Prevention......Page 634
  How People Change: The Transtheoretical Model......Page 635
  Increasing Behaviours That Enhance Health......Page 637
  Reducing Behaviours That Impair Health......Page 640
 Combatting Substance Abuse......Page 641
  Psychological Approaches to Treatment and Prevention......Page 642
 Positive Psychology......Page 646
 Applications: How to Be Happy......Page 647
CHAPTER 16 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS......Page 650
  What Is "Abnormal"?......Page 651
 Historical Perspectives on Deviant Behaviour......Page 653
 Diagnosing Psychological Disorders......Page 655
  The DSM-5: Integrating Categorical and Dimensional Approaches......Page 656
  Critical Issues in Diagnostic Labelling......Page 657
 Research Foundations: On Being Sane in Insane Places......Page 658
 Anxiety Disorders......Page 660
  Phobic Disorder......Page 661
  Panic Disorder......Page 662
  Causal Factors in Anxiety Disorders and OCD......Page 663
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Neuroscience of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder......Page 664
  Eating Disorders......Page 667
 Mood (Affective) Disorders......Page 669
  Depression......Page 670
  Prevalence and Course of Mood Disorders......Page 671
  Causal Factors in Mood Disorders......Page 672
 Applications: Understanding and Preventing Suicide......Page 677
 Somatic Symptom Disorders......Page 679
  What Causes Dissociative Identity Disorder?......Page 681
 Frontiers: Dissociative Identity Disorder: A Clinical and Scientific Puzzle......Page 682
  Characteristics of Schizophrenia......Page 684
  Subtypes of Schizophrenia......Page 685
  Causal Factors in Schizophrenia......Page 686
 Personality Disorders......Page 690
  Antisocial Personality Disorder......Page 691
  Borderline Personality Disorder......Page 694
  Childhood Disorders......Page 696
  Dementia in Old Age......Page 698
 A Closing Thought......Page 699
CHAPTER 17 TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS......Page 701
 The Helping Relationship......Page 702
  Psychoanalysis......Page 703
  Brief Psychodynamic Therapies......Page 705
  Client-Centred Therapy......Page 707
  Gestalt Therapy......Page 709
 Cognitive Therapies......Page 710
  Ellis's Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET)......Page 711
  Beck's Cognitive Therapy......Page 712
  Classical Conditioning Treatments......Page 713
 Focus on Neuroscience: The Neuroscience of Treating Unipolar Depression......Page 714
 Virtual Reality as a Therapeutic Technique......Page 716
  Operant Conditioning Treatments......Page 718
  Modelling and Social Skills Training......Page 720
  Mindfulness-Based Treatments......Page 721
  Cultural Factors in Treatment Utilization......Page 724
  Gender Issues in Therapy......Page 725
 Evaluating Psychotherapies......Page 726
  Psychotherapy Research Methods......Page 727
  Factors Affecting the Outcome of Therapy......Page 730
 Research Foundations: Drug versus Psychological Treatments for Depression: A Randomized Clinical Trial......Page 732
  Drug Therapies......Page 734
  Electroconvulsive Therapy......Page 737
  Mind, Body, and Therapeutic Interventions......Page 738
 Psychological Disorders and Society......Page 740
  Deinstitutionalization......Page 741
  Preventive Mental Health......Page 742
 Applications: When and Where to Seek Therapy......Page 744
APPENDIX: STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY......Page 747
ANSWERS TO THINKING CRITICALLY......Page 756
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