Production, Use and Importance of Flint Tools in the Archaic Period and the Old Kingdom in Egypt

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Figures
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1Introduction
	1.1. The scope of the study
	1.2. History of research
Chapter 2 Production of Tools
	2.1. Types of splintery rocks
	2.2. Sources of raw materials
	2.3. Lithic technology
	2.4. Typology
	2.5. Organisation of lithic production
Chapter 3 Types of Flint Artefacts in the Archaic Period and the Old Kingdom
Figure 1. Metrical data on rectangular sickle blades from Kom el-Hisn, Ain el-Gazzareen, Ain Asil and Elephantine (measurements in mm). Measurements for Ain Asil are given for the most numerous group of sickle blades at the site, made of auburn and black-
Figure 2. Comparison of measurements and proportions of rectangular sickle blades of the Predynastic period and the Old Kingdom (Nagada, Hamemieh, Badari according to Holmes 1989, Ain Asil according to Midant-Reynes 1998, Elephantine according to Hikade 2
Chapter 4 Flint Assemblages from Recently Investigated Old Kingdom Sites
	4.1. The Dakhla Oasis
		4.1.1. Ain el-Gazzareen (Site 32/390/K2-2)
		4.1.2. List of types for the site of Ain el-Gazzareen
		4.1.3. Watch-posts
		4.1.4. The temple of Mut el-Khorab (Site 31/405 – G9 – 1)
		4.1.5. Ain Asil
		4.1.6. Comparison of sites from the Dakhla Oasis
	4.2. Kom el-Hisn, the western Nile Delta
	4.3. Elephantine
Figure 3. Ain el-Gazzareen. Sample collection. Absolute and percentage frequencies of types of cores.
Figure 4.  Ain el-Gazzareen. Sample collection. Metrical data on cores (measurements in mm).
Figure 5. Ain el-Gazzareen. Sample collection. Absolute and percentage frequencies of debitage types
Figure 6. Ain el-Gazzareen. Sample collection. Metrical data on debitage (measurements in mm)
Figure 7. Ain el-Gazzareen. Absolute and percentage frequencies of particular types of retouched tools along with the absolute and percentage frequencies of burnt pieces calculated within particular types .
Figure 8. Ain el-Gazzareen. Type and location of retouch on sickle blades
Figure 9. Ain el-Gazzareen. Absolute and percentage frequencies of particular types of raw materials counted for each type of retouched tools
Figure 10. Seth Hill. Absolute and percentage frequencies of debitage types
Figure 11. Seth Hill. Absolute and percentage frequencies of retouched tools
Figure 12. Bee’s Lookout. Absolute and percentage frequencies of debitage types
Figure 13. Bee’s Lookout. Absolute and percentage frequencies of retouched tools
Figure 14. Ain Asil. Absolute and percentage frequencies of retouched tools (according to Midant-Reynes 1998)
Figure 15. Comparison of flint inventories recovered from the late Old Kingdom sites in the Dakhla Oasis. XXX – very frequent, XX – frequent, X – scarce.
Figure 16. Kom el-Hisn. Absolute and percentage frequencies of debitage types
Figure 17. Kom el-Hisn. Absolute and percentage frequencies of tool types
Figure 18. Kom el-Hisn. Bifacial knifes. Absolute and percentage frequencies of different raw materials.
Figure 19. Kom el-Hisn. Bifacial knifes. Absolute and percentage frequencies of different types of blanks
Figure 20. Kom el-Hisn. Sickle blades. Absolute and percentage frequencies of the location of retouch.
Figure 21. Kom el-Hisn. Sickle blades. Absolute and percentage frequencies of different raw materials.
Figure 22. Kom el-Hisn. Sickle blades. Absolute and percentage frequencies of different types of blanks.
Figure 23. Kom el-Hisn. Sickle blades. Different sections for blades used for sickle production.
Figure 24. Comparison of percentages of different tool types from selected sites. Percentages based on the total number of tools (Helwan, Elephantine, Giza, Ibrahim Awad and Ain Asil according to Hikade 2005. For Ain el-Gazzareen and Kom el-Hisn see this
Figure 25. Elephantine. Northern Group. Types of raw material (according to Hikade 2013)
Figure 26. Elephantine. Northern Group. Absolute and percentage frequencies of debitage types (according to Hikade 2013)
Figure 27. Elephantine. Northern Group. Absolute and percentage frequencies of tool types (according to Hikade 2013).
Figure 28. Elephantine. Southern Group. Types of raw material (according to Hikade 2013)
Figure 29. Elephantine. Southern Group. Absolute and percentage frequencies of debitage types (according to Hikade 2013)
Figure 30. Elephantine. Southern Group. Absolute and percentage frequencies of tool types (according to Hikade 2013).
Chapter 5 Comparison of Flint Assemblages Dated to the Old Kingdom: Sites from Dakhla Oasis, Kom el Hisn and Elephantine
Figure 31. Comparison of flint inventories from Kom el-Hisn, the Dakhla Oasis and Elephantine. XXX – very frequent, XX – frequent, X – scarce. (Elephantine according to Hikade 2013)
Figure 32. The percentage frequencies of major types of flint tool from watch-posts Seth Hill and Bee’s Lookout. Compare to Figure 25.
Chapter 6 El Kharafish
Figure 33. El Kharafish 02/5-1. Absolute and percentage frequencies of tool types. (according to Riemer 2011b)
Chapter 7 Three Lithic Complexes
Chapter 8 The Importance of Flint Tools in the Culture of Early Dynasties of Egypt
	8.1. Economic importance
	8.2. Ritual importance
	8.3. Prestige
Chapter 9 The Cognitive Potential of Flint Materials
	9.1. Centralised rule
	9.2. Acculturation
	9.3. External contacts
Figure 34. Similarities and differences between flint inventories from the sites of Ain el-Gazzareen and El Kharafish (according to H. Riemer 2011a)
Chapter 10 Continued Interest in Flint
Chapter 11 Conclusions
Figure 35. Map of sites mentioned in  the text. 1 Tell el Fara’in/Buto; 2 Kom el Hisn; 3 Tell el Iswid;  4 Tell Ibrahim Awad; 5 Tell el Farkha; 6 Abu Rawash; 7 Giza; 8 Abusir; 9 Heluan; 10 Dahshur; 11  Fayum; 12  Wadi Sheikh; 13 Beni Hassan; 14 Abydos; 15
Figures
Figure 36. Bifacial knife type 2 (Abydos, according to Hikade 1997).
Figure 37. Bifacial knife type „fish teil” type 1 (Abydos, tomb U-127, according to Hikade 1996).
Figure 38. 1- Bifacial knife type 3 (Saqqara, according to Macramallah 1940); 2- bifacial knife type 4 (according to Kromer 1978); 3-4 bifacial knifes worn by grainding (Abydos, according to Svoboda 2006)
Figure 39. Bifacial knife type 5 (Ain Asil VI dynasty, according to Midant-Reynes 1998)
Figure 40. Scene of dividing a cow’s carcass using bifacial knife. (Saqqara, mastaba of  Ptahetep, V dynasty, according to Davies 1901).
Figure 41.1-9  Rectangular sickle blades 1-4 Kom el Hisn; 5-7 Ain el Gazzareen; 8-9 Ain Asil (according to Midant-Reynes 1998)
Figure 42. 1-3 half-finished sickle blades, 4 wooden sickle with visible row of sickle blades.
Figure 43. 1 Scene of harvesting by sickle with flint inserts (Tomb of Sennediem, XIX dynasty, according to Tristant 2009); 2 reconstruction of hafting sickle inserts based on traces of bitumite (Middle east, according to Cauvin 1973)
Figure 44. 1-5 masive rectangular sickle blades; 6-7 massive triangular sickle blades
Figure 45. 1-5,9 bitruncated regular blade tools („rasor blades”) older phase (Saqqara, according to Macramallah 1940);  6-8, 10 bitruncated regular blade tools („rasor blades”) younger phase  (Elephantine, according to Hikade 2002);
Figure 46. 1 massive scraper (Ain el Gazzareen); 2 flat scraper (Ain el Gazzareen); 3 scraper with denticulated edge (Ain Asil, according to Midant-Reynes 1998)
Figure 47. 1 flat scraper (Ain el Gazzareen); 2 triangular scraper (Tell el Fara’in/Buto, according to Schmidt 1992b; 3-5 end-scrapers (3-4 Ain el Gazzareen, 5 Ain Asil (according to Midant-Reynes 1998)
Figure 48. 1 crescent shaped drill (Tell el Fara’in/Buto (according to Schmidt 1986); 2-5 microperforators (Ain el Gazzareen); 6-8 notches (Ain el Gazzareen)
Figure 49. 1-2 nosed scrapers (Ain el Gazzareen); 3-5 tanged arrow heads (3,5 Ain el Gazzareen); 6-7 bifacially retouched arrow heads (6 – Abydos, tomb of Djer, according to Hikade 2003; 7 – Ain el Gazzareen); 8 trapezoidal arrow head (Elephantine, accord
Figure 50. 1-5 borers (Ain el Gazzareen); 6-7 denticulates (6 – Ain Asil, according to Midant-Reynes 1998, 7 – Ain el Gazzareen)
Figure 51. 1,3 strangled pieces (1 – Ain Asil, according to Midant-Reynes 1998, 3 – Ain el Gazzareen); 2,4 scaled pieces (Ain el Gazzareen); 5-6  retouched flakes (Ain el Gazzareen);
Figure 52. 1-4 burins (Elephantine, according to Katthagen 1985); 5 backed piece (Helwan, according to Hikade 2005); 6-7 bracelets of flint (6 – Tell el Fara’in/Buto, according to Schmidt 1992b), 7 – Elephantine (according to Katthagen 1985)
Figure 53. Axe (Giza, afer Kromer 1978)
Figure 54. Hoe (Ain el Gazzareen)
Figure 55. Pebble tool (Dahshur)
Figure 56. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-3 cores
Figure 57. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-4 cores
Figure 58. Type list. 1 - bifacial knife; 2 – rectangular sickle blade; 3 – triangular sickle blade; 4 – half-finished sickle blade; 5 – massive rectangular sickle insert; 6 – massive triangular sickle insert; 7 – massive scraper; 8 – flat scraper; 9 – en
Figure 59. Ain el Gazzareen, bifacial knife
Figure 60. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-2 bifacial knifes
Figure 61. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-2 worn bifacial knifes
Figure 62. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-2 fragments of bifacial knifes
Figure 63. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-4 worn bifacial knifes
Figure 64. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-9 rectanglar sickle blades
Figure 65. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-3 triangular sickle blades; 4-6 half-finished sickle blades; 7-8 massive rectangular sickle blades
Figure 66. Ain el Gazzarn, 1-8 massive rectangular sickle blades
Figure 67. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-5 massive triangular sickle blades
Figure 68. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-3 masive scrapers
Figure 69. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-2 flat scrapers
Figure 70. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-5 flat scrapers
Figure 71. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-5 end-scrapers
Figure 72. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-3 nosed scrapers.
Figure 73. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-4 rabots
Figure 74. Ain el Gazzareen, 1,4 crescent shaped drills; 2,5 tanged arrow heads; 3,6 bifacially retouched arrow heads, 7 retouched flake.
Figure 75. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-9 micro-perforators; 10-12 noches
Figure 76. Ain el Gazzareen, 1-8 borers
Figure 77. Ain el Gazareen, 1-6 denticulate tools
Figure 78. Ain el Gazzareen, 1,3 strangled pieces; 2,4-6 scaled pieces
Figure 79. Ain el Gazzareen, 1,4 retouched blades; 2,3,5 retouched flakes
Figure 80. Dakhla Oasis. Location of watch-posts. 1- Seth Hill; 2 – Bee’s Lookout; 3 – Nephtys Hill; 4 – Trigpoint Hill; 5 – Meidum Hill; 6 – Darb el Tawil; 7 – E-99/38, E-99/39; 8- El Kharafish
Figure 81. Seth Hill. 1-2 cores; 3 Double patinated Middle Palaeolithic levallois core.
Figure 82. Seth hill. 1 sickle blade; 2 massive triangular sickle blade; 3 flat scraper, 4 massive scraper
Figure 83. Seth Hill. 1 end scraper; 2-3 tanged arrow heads; 4 retouched flake; 5 microperforator; 6 borer ; 7 denticulated tool; 8 notch; 9 scaled piece. 1,6-7 and 9 are double patinated Midlle Palaeolithic tools.
Figure 84. Bee’s Lookout. Core of chalcedony.
Figure 85. Bee’s Lookout. 1-2 cores; 3,5 flat scrapers; 4 massive scraper; 6 mikroperforator; 7 borer. Number 4 is double patinated Middle Palaeolithic tool.
Figure 86. Bee’s Lookout. 1-2 borers; 3 crescent shaped drill; 5 denticulated tool; 6 scaled piece; 4,7 retouched flakes.
Figure 87. Kom el Hisn. 1 core; 2 obsidian core; 3 notch; 4 borer; 5-6 truncations
Figure 88. Kom el Hisn. 1,3 fragments of bifacial knife; 2 – burin; 4 flat scraper
Figure 89. Kom el Hisn. 1-9 rectangular sickle blades
Figure 90. Kom el Hisn. 1-3 rectangular sickle blades; 4-6 triangular sickle blades, 7-10 half- finished sickle blades
Figure 91. Kom el Hisn. 1 end scraper; 2 retouched flake; 3 retouched blade.
Figure 92. El Kharafish 02/5. 1-4 cores (according to Riemer 2011a)
Figure 93. El Kharafish 02/5. 1-3 scrapers with flat retouch; 4-7 scrapers with steep retouch (according to Riemer 2011a)
Figure 94. El Kharafish 02/5. 1-2 scrapers made on Middle Palaeolithic double patinated flakes; 3-9 borers (according to Riemer 2011a)
Figure 95. El Kharafish 02/5. 1-3 perforators; 4-5 denticulated tools; 6-7 noches (according to Riemer 2011a)
Figure 96. El Kharafish 02/5. 1-2 bifacially retouched arrow heads; 3 Ounan point; 4-6 fragments of knifes; 7 retouched blade; 8 truncation (according to Riemer 2011a). 4,7 and 8 seem to be rather sickle blades.
Figure 97. Beni Hasan. XII dynasty Manufacture of flint knifes: a Tomb 2; b Tomb 15, (according to Griffith 1896)
Figure 100. Tabular flint
Figure 98. Eastern Desert. 1-2 heavy duty tools (according to Seton Karr 1905)
Figure 99. Nodular flint
Figure 101. Dahshur. Surface concentration of pebble flint
Figure 102. Naqlun. Layer containing pebble flints
Figure 103. Ain el Gazzareen. Hammerstone of quartz
Figure 104. Ain el Gazzareen. Cores
Figure 105. Ain el Gazzareen. Bifacial knife
Figure 106. Dakhla Oasis. Rite of bifacial knife on sandstone rock.
Figure 107. Ain el Gazzareen. Rectangular and triangular sickle blades
Figure 108. Ain el Gazzareen. Half-products of sickle blades
Figure 109. Ain el Gazzaren. Massive rectangular sickle inserts
Figure 110. Ain el Gazzareen. Massive triangular sickle inserts
Figure 111. Ain el Gazzareen. Massive scrapers
Figure 112. Ain el Gazzareen. Flat scrapers
Figure 113. Ain el Gazzareen. Nosed scrapers
Figure 114. Ain el Gazzareen. Crescent shaped drill
Figure 115. Ain el Gazzareen. Tanged arrow heads
Figure 116. Ain el Gazzareen. Bifacially retouched arrow heads
Figure 117. Ain el Gazzareen. Microperforators
Figure 118. Ain el Gazzareen. Borers
Figure 119. Ain el Gazzaren. Denticulated pieces
Figure 120. Ain el Gazzareen. Scaled pieces
Figure 121. Ain el Gazzareen. Strangled pieces
Figure 122. Dahshur. Pebble tool
Figure 123. Stone construction on the wathpost
References
Appendix Contribution to the Functional Identification of Flint Tools used during the Old Kingdom of Egypt. A Case Study of Kom el Hisn and Ain el Gazzareen
	1. Research methods
	Introduction
	2. The characteristics of the inventories and the results of use-wear analysis
		Kom El Hisn
	Ain el-Gazzareen
	References
	Summary
Appendix: Figure 1. Kom el-Hisn.  Blade for smoothing non-organic material (a – microscopic photo, magnification 12x)  and for plant cutting (b – microscopic photo, magnification 100x)
Appendix: Figure 2. Kom el-Hisn. Blade with edge polish (a – microscopic photo, magnification 12x) used for cereal cutting (b, c – microscopic photos, magnification 100x)
Appendix: Figure 3. Kom el-Hisn. Blade used for cereal cutting (a - microscopic photo, magnification 12x, b - microscopic photo, magnification 100x)
Appendix: Figure 4. Kom El-Hisn. Blade used for plant cutting (a - microscopic photo, magnification 12x, b - microscopic photo, magnification 100x)
Appendix: Figure 5. Kom el-Hisn. Blade used for cereal cutting (a, b – microscopic photos, magnification 100x)
Appendix: Figure 6. Kom el-Hisn.  Blade with modified edges caused by hard material processing (microscopic photo, magnification 12x).
Appendix: Figure 7. Kom el-Hisn. Bifacial knife with modified edges caused by hard material processing (microscopic photo, magnification 12x)
Appendix: Figure 8. Ain El-Gazzareen: 1 - 6 heavy duty scrapers
Appendix: Figure 9. Ain El-Gazzareen: 1 - 7 heavy duty scrapers; 8 - 11 nosed scrapers
Appendix: Figure 10. Ain El-Gazzareen: 1 - 7 end scrapers; 8 - 9 bifacial knifes
Appendix: Figure 11. Ain El-Gazzareen: 1 - 5 bifacial knifes; 6 - 9 flat scrapers
Appendix: Figure 12. Ain El-Gazzareen: 1 - 4 flat scrapers; 5 - 11 massive rectangular sickle inserts; 12 bifacial knife
Appendix: Figure 13. Ain El-Gazzareen: 1 - 10 massive rectangular sickle inserts; 11 - 17 massive triangular sickle inserts
Appendix: Figure 14. Ain El-Gazzareen: 1 - 4 massive triangular sickle inserts; 5 - 12 lamellar sickle inserts; 13 - 14 half-products of lamellar sickle inserts
Appendix: Figure 15. Ain El-Gazzareen: 1 bifacially retouched projectile point; 2 - 4 groovers; 5 - 6 double backed perforators; 7 perforator; 8 - 9 scaled pieces
Appendix: Figure 16. Ain el-Gazareen. Massive  triangular  sickle  inserts with traces of use-polish (a, b – microscopic photos, magnification 12x)
Appendix: Figure 17. Ain el- Gazareen. Massive rectangular sickle inserts  with traces of use-polish (a, b – microscopic photos, magnification 12x, c- microscopic photo of plant processing photo, magnification, pow. 200x)
Appendix: Figure 18. Ain el-Gazareen, Lamellar sickle insert (microscopic photo, magnification 200x)
Appendix: Figure 19. Ain El-Gazzareen. Groovers and perforator with traces of boring hard material