Probiotic Research in Therapeutics: Volume 4 Probiotics in Neurodegenerative Disorders

Foreword by J. V. Yakhmi
Foreword by Pike-See Cheah
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
1: Gut-Brain Axis: Role of Gut Microbiota in Neurodegenerative Disease
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 The Gut-Brain Axis
	1.3 Alzheimer´s Disease (AD)
		1.3.1 Cause and Effect Conundrum
		1.3.2 Amyloid Hypothesis
		1.3.3 The Hygiene Hypothesis
		1.3.4 Infection Hypothesis (Antimicrobial Response Hypothesis Also Known as Antimicrobial Protection Hypothesis)
		1.3.5 A Case for Viruses
		1.3.6 Inflammaging Hypothesis
	1.4 Parkinson´s Disease
		1.4.1 Dual Hit Hypothesis
			1.4.1.1 Evidence Unseen
		1.4.2 NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation Mechanism
		1.4.3 Insulin Resistance Angle
		1.4.4 Curli Hypothesis
		1.4.5 Leaky Gut or the Intestinal Barrier Mechanism
	1.5 Fecal Matter Transplantation (FMT)
	1.6 Conclusion
	References
2: Critical Inspection of the Gut-Brain-Skin Triangle and Its Modulation Through Probiotics
	2.1 Probiotics: In and Out
	2.2 Skin to Brain via Gut
	2.3 The Relationship Between Skin and Its Microbiome: Beyond Skin Deep
	2.4 Understanding the Gut-Brain Axis
	2.5 That Gut-Feeling: In Skin and Brain
	2.6 Probiotics 2.0
	2.7 Future Aspects and Undercarpet Challenges
	2.8 Conclusion
	References
3: Therapeutic Mechanisms of Gut Microbiota and Probiotics in the Management of Mental Disorders
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Interaction of Probiotics with Neurotransmitter System
	3.3 Interaction of Probiotics with Metabolism and Production of Fatty Acids
	3.4 Interaction of Probiotics with Inflammatory and Antioxidant System
	3.5 Interaction of Probiotics with Histamine, Diacylglycerol Kinase and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Expression
	References
4: Pathophysiological Role of Gut Microbiota Affecting Gut-Brain Axis and Intervention of Probiotics and Prebiotics in Autism ...
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Relationship Link Between Brain-Gut-Microbiota Axis
	4.3 Dysbiosis in ASD: Role of Altered Brain-Gut-Microbiota Axis
		4.3.1 Impact of Gut Microbiota on Brain and Behavior
		4.3.2 Relationship Between Gut Microbiota and Central Nervous System
		4.3.3 Gastrointestinal Symptoms of ASD
		4.3.4 Pathogenesis of Clostridium, Sutterella, and other Genera in ASD
			4.3.4.1 Role of Serotonin Pathway in Manifestation of Altered Gut-Brain Axis in ASD
			4.3.4.2 Role of Gut Microbial Metabolites Pathway in Manifestation of Altered Gut-Brain Axis in ASD
	4.4 Evidential In Vivo Animal and Human Clinical Trial Studies for Gut Dysbiosis and ASD-Like Behavioral Disturbances
		4.4.1 Animal Model Studies
		4.4.2 Human Clinical Trials
	4.5 Physiological Effects of Dietary Supplements and Prebiotics on the Gut-Brain Axis
		4.5.1 Effects of Novel Personalized Dietary Treatment
		4.5.2 Effects of Prebiotics
	4.6 Role of Probiotics in Amelioration of ASD
		4.6.1 Beneficial Effects of Probiotics on Gastrointestinal Symptoms in ASD
	4.7 Microbial Reconstitution: A Potent Future Therapeutic Intervention in ASD
		4.7.1 Fecal Microbiota Transfer (FMT)
		4.7.2 Microbiota Transfer Therapy (MTT)
	4.8 Conclusions
	References
5: Probiotics Ameliorate Gut-Brain Dysbiosis in Autism Spectrum Disorder by Modulating Nrf2-Keap1 Signaling Pathway
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Gut-Brain Dysbiosis in ASD
	5.3 The Putative Role of Nrf2-Keap1 as a Therapeutic Target in ASD
	5.4 Probiotics in Autism
	5.5 Modulation of the Nrf2-Keap1 Pathway by Probiotics: Plausible Mechanism
	5.6 Perspectives
	5.7 Conclusions
	References
6: Psychobiotics for Manipulating Gut-Brain Axis in Alzheimer´s Disease
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Definitions
	6.3 Psychobiotics
	6.4 History
	6.5 Gastrointestinal Tract Microbiota
	6.6 Dysbiosis
	6.7 Gut-Brain Axis
		6.7.1 Neuroendocrine and Enteroendocrine Signaling
		6.7.2 Enterochromaffin Cell Signaling
		6.7.3 Direct Neural Signaling
		6.7.4 Neuroimmune Signaling
			6.7.4.1 Inflammasome Signaling
			6.7.4.2 Type I Interferon Signaling
			6.7.4.3 NF-κB Signaling
	6.8 Link Between the Gut Microbiome and AD Pathogenesis
	6.9 Therapeutic Role of Psychobiotics in AD
	6.10 Future Prospectus and Knowledge Gap
	References
7: Probiotic Supplementation in Major Depressive Disorders
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Microbiota
	7.3 Gut Microbiota and Brain Functions
		7.3.1 Gut-Brain Axis: Focus on Gut Peptides
		7.3.2 Role of Omega-3, Lipids and Microflora
		7.3.3 Status of Gut Microbiota in Stress and Major Depressive Disorder
	7.4 Conventional Therapies in Management of MDD
	7.5 Probiotics
		7.5.1 Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Probiotics
		7.5.2 Probiotics for the Treatment of MDD
	7.6 Conclusion
	References
8: Gut Dysbiosis in Insomnia and Diurnal Cycle
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Gut Microbiome
	8.3 Dysbiosis
	8.4 Causes of Dysbiosis
		8.4.1 Perinatal Disruption of Colonization
		8.4.2 Dietary Factors
		8.4.3 Underlying Disease
		8.4.4 Stress
	8.5 Insomnia
		8.5.1 Causes
		8.5.2 Complications
		8.5.3 Gut Dysbiosis and Sleep
	8.6 Gut Microbiota and Depression
	8.7 Intestinal Dysbacteriosis and Stress
	8.8 The Microbiome–Gut–Brain (MGB) Axis
	8.9 Circadian Clock
		8.9.1 Mechanisms of Circadian Metaorganism Host-Microbiome Crosstalk
			8.9.1.1 The Gut Microbiota, Clock Genes, and Circadian Rhythms
			8.9.1.2 Circadian Misalignment in Insomnia
	8.10 Factors Affecting Circadian Rhythm and Gut Microbiome
		8.10.1 Light-Dark Cycles
		8.10.2 Sleep Quality
		8.10.3 Jet Lag
		8.10.4 Meal: Quality, Timing, and Frequency
		8.10.5 Bile Salt Biotransformation
		8.10.6 Hydrogen Sulfide
		8.10.7 Vitamins
		8.10.8 Biogenic Amines
	8.11 Future Approaches: Reversal of Gut Dysbiosis and Insomnia Disorder Through Restoration of the Gut Microbiota
		8.11.1 Probiotics
		8.11.2 Disciplined Diet and Eating Pattern
		8.11.3 Fecal Microbial Transplant (FMT)
	8.12 Conclusion
	References
9: Role of Gut Microbiota and Probiotic in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Historical Perspectives of CFS
	9.3 Risk Factor of CFS
		9.3.1 Gut Microbiota Composition
			9.3.1.1 Other Risk Factors
	9.4 Etiology of CFS
		9.4.1 Genetics
		9.4.2 Immune System
			9.4.2.1 Biopsychosocial Model and Adrenal System
			9.4.2.2 Sleep and Nutrition
	9.5 Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Gut Microbiota in CFS
		9.5.1 Host Immune Response Stimulation Leading to Diverse Patterns of Systemic Cytokine Activation
			9.5.1.1 Enteric Dysbiosis
		9.5.2 Neuroendocrine Signaling Pathway
		9.5.3 Intestinal Metabolites
			9.5.3.1 Fatty Acids
				9.5.3.1.1 Tryptophan
		9.5.4 Alterations in Neuronal Circuitry
			9.5.4.1 GABA
				9.5.4.1.1 Serotonin
					9.5.4.1.1.1 Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor
		9.5.5 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA Axis) and Corticosteroids
		9.5.6 Mucosal Dysfunction
	9.6 Gut Microbiota and Its Effects on CFS
	9.7 Selection Criteria of Probiotics
	9.8 Treatment of CFS
		9.8.1 Probiotics/Prebiotics
			9.8.1.1 Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT)
	9.9 Clinical Implications
	9.10 Concluded Remarks and Future Prospective
	References
10: Animal Models Used for Studying the Benefits of Probiotics in Neurodegeneration
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Relationship Between Probiotics and Gut-Brain Axis (GBA)
	10.3 Experimental Approaches in Validating the Probiotic Effect on Neurodegeneration Using Animal Models
		10.3.1 Psychobiotics in the Treatment of Anxiety and Depression
		10.3.2 Psychobiotics in the Treatment of Alzheimer´s Disease
		10.3.3 Psychobiotics in the Treatment of Parkinson´s Disease
			10.3.3.1 Toxin Based Models
				10.3.3.1.1 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) Induced Parkinson´s Disease
				10.3.3.1.2 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) Induced Parkinson´s Disease
				10.3.3.1.3 Rotenone Induced Parkinson´s Disease
				10.3.3.1.4 Paraquat Induced Parkinson´s Disease
			10.3.3.2 Genetic Models of Parkinson´s Disease
				10.3.3.2.1 α-Synuclein Induced Parkinson´s Disease
				10.3.3.2.2 LRRK 2 Induced Parkinson´s Disease
				10.3.3.2.3 Parkin Induced Parkinson´s Disease
				10.3.3.2.4 DJI Induced Parkinson´s Disease
				10.3.3.2.5 PINK1 Induced Parkinson´s Disease
			10.3.3.3 Experimental Evidences in Rodent Models
	10.4 Conclusion
	References