Principles of Vegetable Oil Extraction

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Part 1 Mechanical Expression
	Chapter 1 Introduction
		1.1 Scope
		1.2 Historical Practices
		1.3 Modern Practices
		1.4 Vegetable Oils of the World
	Chapter 2 Technology of Preparation of Oil-Bearing Materials Prior to Mechanical Expression
		2.1 Seed Preparation – Theoretical Aspects
			2.1.1 Seed Structure and Cell Structure
			2.1.2 Cracking, Preheating and Flaking
			2.1.3 Cooking
			2.1.4 Extrusion Cooking
			2.1.5 Seed Structure and Protein Content – Effects on Processing
			2.1.6 Optimum Moisture at Press Inlet
		2.2 Preparation of Mustard/Rapeseed
			2.2.1 Rapeseed Characteristics
			2.2.2 Cleaning and Pre-heating
			2.2.3 Flaking and Cooking
				2.2.3.1 Preparation for Pre-press
				2.2.3.2 Preparation for Full Press
				2.2.3.3 Two-stage Pressing
				2.2.3.4 Multiple Pressing at Low Temperature
		2.3 Sunflower Seed and Safflower Seed
			2.3.1 Sunflower Seed Structure
			2.3.2 Sunflower Dehulling and Flaking
			2.3.3 Size Reduction of Whole Sunflower Seed
			2.3.4 Cooking
			2.3.5 Effect of Dehulling on Wax Content in Oil
			2.3.6 Preparation of Safflower Seed
		2.4 Cottonseed
			2.4.1 Delinting and Dehulling
			2.4.2 Pre-heat, Flaking and Cooking
			2.4.3 Expander Process
			2.4.4 Full Pressing of White Cottonseed
		2.5 Groundnut
		2.6 Copra (Coconut Oil)
		2.7 Palm Kernel
		2.8 Sheanut
		2.9 Corn Germ
		2.10 Castor Beans
		2.11 Other Oilseeds: Sesame, Soybean, Niger, Linseed, Neem
			2.11.1 Sesame
			2.11.2 Soybean
			2.11.3 Niger Seed
			2.11.4 Linseed
			2.11.5 Neem
		2.12 Fruit Oils: Oil Palm, Olive, Avocado
	Chapter 3 Preparation Equipment: Operation Principles and Design Aspects
		3.1 Unloading of Seed, Pre-Cleaning and Drying
			3.1.1 Seed Unloading
			3.1.2 Pre-Cleaning of Seed
			3.1.3 Seed Drying
		3.2 Silos
		3.3 Seed Cleaning
			3.3.1 Size Separation
			3.3.2 Magnetic Separation
			3.3.3 Gravity Separation of Stones
			3.3.4 Layout of Cleaning Section
		3.4 On-Line Weighment
		3.5 Seed Crackers
		3.6 Pre-heaters and Cookers
			3.6.1 Types of Equipment
			3.6.2 Rotary Drum Cooker/Dryer
			3.6.3 Vertical Cooker
			3.6.4 Level Control
			3.6.5 Temperature Control
			3.6.6 Cooker Design
				3.6.6.1 Determination of Cooker Size
				3.6.6.2 Cooker Drive Power
			3.6.7 Moisture Conditioning
		3.7 Flakers
			Degree of Deformation
		3.8 Grinders
		3.9 Delinter and Dehuller (Cottonseed)
			3.9.1 Delinter
			3.9.2 Dehuller (Cotton Seed)
		3.10 Dehuller (Sunflower)
		3.11 Extruder
		3.12 Preparation Plant Layout and Conveying Systems
			3.12.1 Machinery Layout
			3.12.2 Conveyers and Elevators
	Chapter 4 Screw Pressing
		4.1 Screw Press – Historical Perspective
		4.2 Comparison Between Box-Frame and Single-Cast Cage Designs
			4.2.1 Principles
			4.2.2 Case Study 1: Copra Crushing
			4.2.3 Case Study 2: Mustard Seed Crushing
		4.3 Modern Presses – Construction Features
			4.3.1 Overall Construction
			4.3.2 Cages
			4.3.3 Press Covers
			4.3.4 Worm Shaft
			4.3.5 Worm Shaft Cooling
			4.3.6 Drive and Bearings
		4.4 Operation Practices
			4.4.1 A Modern Oil Mill
			4.4.2 Prepress and Full Press
			4.4.3 Effect of Press Operation Parameters
			4.4.4 Effects of Seed Preparation
			4.4.5 Press Startup
			4.4.6 Process Issues
				4.4.6.1 Increase in Oil-in-Cake
				4.4.6.2 Powdery Discharge
				4.4.6.3 Spurting
				4.4.6.4 Foots Increase
				4.4.6.5 Un-Crushed Particles in Cake
			4.4.7 Press Load Control System
			4.4.8 Oil Expression From Various Oilseeds
				4.4.8.1 Soft Seeds - Rapeseed, Groundnut, Sesame, Castor
				4.4.8.2 Sunflower Seed, Cotton Seed
				4.4.8.3 Palm Kernel and Shea Nut
				4.4.8.4 Copra
		4.5 Press Design Aspects
			4.5.1 Methods of Design
			4.5.2 Cage and Worms Profile
				4.5.2.1 Feed Worm Size
				4.5.2.2 The Last Worm
				4.5.2.3 Intermediate Worms
				4.5.2.4 Intermediate Collars
				4.5.2.5 Wormshaft Assembly and Cage Length
				4.5.2.6 Full Press Design
			4.5.3 Intermediate Humps
			4.5.4 Knife Bars and Breaker Disks
			4.5.5 Choke
			4.5.6 Drive Power
		4.6 Oil Mill Layout – Press Location
		4.7 Future Possibilities
			4.7.1 Large Press Capacity
			4.7.2 Energy Reduction
			4.7.3 Lower RO in Full Pressing
			4.7.4 Cell Wall Rupture by Hydraulic Pressure
	Chapter 5 Cake Cooling, Storage and Utilisation
		5.1 Process Steps
		5.2 Cake Breaker
		5.3 Cake Cooler
		5.4 Conveying to Solvent Extraction Plant
		5.5 Bagging for Storage
		5.6 Cake Utilisation in Animal Feed
	Chapter 6 Oil Filtration, Cooling and Storage
		6.1 Pre-filtration
			6.1.1 Screening Tank
			6.1.2 Screening Conveyor
			6.1.3 Vibro-Sieve
		6.2 Oil Filtration
			6.2.1 Filter Feed Tank
			6.2.2 Filter
				6.2.2.1 Plate-n-Frame Filters (Plate Filters)
				6.2.2.2 Pressure Leaf Filters (PLF)
			6.2.3 Decanter
			6.2.4 Heel Tank and Filtered Oil Tank
			6.2.5 Safety Filter
		6.3 Oil Drying and Cooling
			6.3.1 Oil Drying
			6.3.2 Oil Cooling
		6.4 Oil Storage
		6.5 Oil Filling
	Chapter 7 Process Control and Automation
		7.1 Process Control Parameters
			7.1.1 Feed Control
			7.1.2 Overflow Bins
			7.1.3 Cooker Level Control
			7.1.4 Cooker Temperature Control
			7.1.5 Feed Control to Presses
			7.1.6 Foots Recirculation to Cooker
			7.1.7 Cake Cooling Time
			7.1.8 Oil Level in FFT
			7.1.9 Oil Filtration Time
			7.1.10 Oil Level in FOT and in Heel Tank
			7.1.11 Oil Drying Temperature
		7.2 Oil Mill Automation
			7.2.1 Level 1
			7.2.2 Level 2
			7.2.3 Level 3
			7.2.4 Level 4 and Future
	Chapter 8 Utility Requirement for Oil Mills
		8.1 Electricity
		8.2 Steam
		8.3 Water
		8.4 Compressed Air
	Chapter 9 Quality Issues
		9.1 Quality of Presscake
		9.2 Oil Quality
	Chapter 10 Safety and Environment Aspects
		10.1 Safety Issues
		10.2 Health and Environment
Part 2 Solvent Extraction
	Chapter 11 Introduction
		11.1 Scope
		11.2 Historical Practices
		11.3 Modern Practice of Solvent Extraction
	Chapter 12 Preparation Prior to Solvent Extraction
		12.1 Preparation – Theoretical Aspects
			12.1.1 Oil Cell Structure
			12.1.2 Seed Breaking and Cooking (Conditioning)
			12.1.3 Flaking
			12.1.4 Expander Enhancement
			12.1.5 The Degree of Preparation – Milling Defect
		12.2 Preparation of Presscakes
		12.3 Soybean Preparation
			12.3.1 Beans Cleaning
			12.3.2 Beans Cracking
			12.3.3 Conditioning
			12.3.4 Flaking
			12.3.5 Expanding
			12.3.6 Cooling of Collets
			12.3.7 Dehulling
				12.3.7.1 Cold Dehulling
				12.3.7.2 Warm/Hot Dehulling
		12.4 Rice Bran Preparation
			12.4.1 Raw Rice Bran
			12.4.2 Parboiled Rice Bran
			12.4.3 RB Preparation Process Steps
			12.4.4 Cleaning
			12.4.5 Conditioning
			12.4.6 Pelleting
			12.4.7 Expander Treatment
			12.4.8 Pellet Cooling
		12.5 Cotton Seed Preparation (also Safflower Seed and Corn Germ)
			12.5.1 Pre-heat and Flaking
			12.5.2 Cooking
			12.5.3 Expander
			12.5.4 Cooling of Collets
			12.5.5 Safflower Seed Preparation
			12.5.6 Corn Germ
		12.6 Sunflower Seed and Palm Kernel
		12.7 Minor Seeds: Sal Seed and Mango Kernel
			12.7.1 Sal Seed
			12.7.2 Mango Kernel
	Chapter 13 Preparation Equipment: Construction Features and Design Aspects
		13.1 Grader
		13.2 Pellet Mill
		13.3 Expander
		13.4 Expander with Drain Cage
	Chapter 14 Solvent Extraction: Technology and Plant Operation
		14.1 Solvent Extraction Process
			14.1.1 Process Overview
			14.1.2 Extraction
				14.1.2.1 Nomenclature
				14.1.2.2 Extractor Types
				14.1.2.3 Flow of Flakes and Solvent
				14.1.2.4 Number of Extraction Stages
				14.1.2.5 Residual Oil in Spent Flakes
				14.1.2.6 Outlet Miscella Concentration
				14.1.2.7 Solvent Carryover in Spent Flakes
				14.1.2.8 Extractor Screen
				14.1.2.9 Intermediate Drain Zones
				14.1.2.10 Combination of Percolation and Immersion Principles
				14.1.2.11 Extractor Safety
				14.1.2.12 Extractor Operation
				14.1.2.13 Extraction Potential
				14.1.2.14 Effect of Flake Thickness and Temperature
				14.1.2.15 Mathematical Analysis of Extraction Process
				14.1.2.16 Batch Extraction
			14.1.3 Desolventising of Spent Flakes
			14.1.4 Miscella Distillation
			14.1.5 Solvent Recovery From Vent
			14.1.6 Explosion-Proof Environment
			14.1.7 Alternative Solvents
		14.2 Soybean Processing
			14.2.1 Extraction
			14.2.2 Desolventising Toasting
			14.2.3 Meal Drying and Cooling
			14.2.4 Meal Sizing and Bagging
			14.2.5 Distillation
			14.2.6 Solvent Recovery From Vent
			14.2.7 Processing Soybean Flakes for Edible Applications
			14.2.8 Edible Products From Untoasted Flakes
			14.2.9 Oil Degumming and Soy Lecithin
			14.2.10 Utilities Requirement for Soybean Extraction Plant
		14.3 Rice Bran Processing
			14.3.1 Extraction
			14.3.2 Desolventisation
			14.3.3 Distillation
			14.3.4 Colour of RBO – A Problem
		14.4 Cottonseed Meat Processing
			14.4.1 Extraction
			14.4.2 Desolventising – Cooling
			14.4.3 Distillation
			14.4.4 Miscella Refining
			14.4.5 Drying of Soapstock
		14.5 Presscakes of Rapeseed, Sunflower Seed and Other Oilseeds
			14.5.1 Cakes of Rapeseed and Sunflower Seed
			14.5.2 Groundnut Cake
			14.5.3 Cottonseed Cake
			14.5.4 Corn Germ Cake
			14.5.5 Castor Bean Cake
			14.5.6 Palm Kernel Cake
			14.5.7 Shea Nut Cake
		14.6 Sunflower Seed – Direct Extraction
		14.7 Palm Kernel
		14.8 Corn Germ
		14.9 Minor Seeds – Sal Seed, Mango Kernel
			14.9.1 Sal Seed
			14.9.2 Mango Kernel
	Chapter 15 SEP Equipment: Operation, Construction and Design Aspects
		15.1 Extractor Section
			15.1.1 Feed Conveyor
			15.1.2 Rotary Air Lock
			15.1.3 Extractor Feed Hopper
			15.1.4 The Extractor
				15.1.4.1 The Linear Extractor
				15.1.4.2 Rotary Extractor
				15.1.4.3 Loop Extractor
				15.1.4.4 Sliding Cell Extractor
				15.1.4.5 Materials of Construction, Drive and Insulation, of Extractor
		15.2 Desolventisation Section
			15.2.1 Feed Mechanism
			15.2.2 DT
				15.2.2.1 Schumacher Type DT
				15.2.2.2 Classical DT
				15.2.2.3 Material of Construction, and Drive, of DT
			15.2.3 Dryer Cooler
				15.2.3.1 DC in a DTDC
				15.2.3.2 A Separate DC
				15.2.3.3 Air Cyclones, Bag Filter and Air Heater
			15.2.4 Dust Scrubber
			15.2.5 Steam Economiser
			15.2.6 Solvent Heater
			15.2.7 DT Condensor
			15.2.8 Ducts and Pressure Drop
		15.3 Distillation Section
			15.3.1 Miscella Filtration
				15.3.1.1 Hydro Cyclone
				15.3.1.2 Miscella Filter
			15.3.2 Miscella Tank
			15.3.3 Economiser
			15.3.4 Miscella Heater
			15.3.5 Evaporator
			15.3.6 Stripper
			15.3.7 Oil Cooler
			15.3.8 Distillation Condensor
			15.3.9 Water Circulation in Condensor System
			15.3.10 Solvent-Water Separator
			15.3.11 Clean Water Heater
		15.4 Vent Absorption Unit
			15.4.1 Air Cooler
			15.4.2 The Absorber
			15.4.3 Oil Stripper
			15.4.4 Oil Heater and Cooler
			15.4.5 Vent Fan (or, Ejector)
		15.5 Auxiliary Equipment and Utilities
			15.5.1 Motor Control Centre (MCC) and Control Panel
			15.5.2 Overhead Safety Water Tank
			15.5.3 Water Sprinkler System
			15.5.4 Cooling Tower
			15.5.5 Solvent Tanks
			15.5.6 Steam Piping and Fittings
			15.5.7 Compressed Air
		15.6 Solvent Plant Operation, Trouble-Shooting and Maintenance
		15.7 Process Control and Automation
			15.7.1 Process Control Parameters
				15.7.1.1 Feed to Plant
				15.7.1.2 Feed to DT
				15.7.1.3 Level Regulation in DT Stages
				15.7.1.4 Temperature Control in DT
				15.7.1.5 Temperature Control in Extractor
				15.7.1.6 Miscella Flow to Distillation
				15.7.1.7 Temperature of Miscella in Evaporator
				15.7.1.8 Temperature of Hot Oil in Vent Recovery Unit
				15.7.1.9 Pressure in Dryer Stage of DTDC
				15.7.1.10 Temperature of Hot Air in Dryer Stage of DTDC
				15.7.1.11 Temperature of Cooled Meal
				15.7.1.12 Temperature of Clean Water
			15.7.2 Process Automation
		15.8 Future Technological Possibilities
			15.8.1 New Extractor for Rice Bran (and Low-Protein Seeds)
			15.8.2 Desolventising Under Vacuum
			15.8.3 Mild Distillation
	Chapter 16 Meal Pelleting and Edible Products of Soybean
		16.1 Soybean Flour
		16.2 Soy Nuggets (Texturised)
		16.3 Soy Protein Concentrate
		16.4 Soy Protein Isolate
		16.5 Cotton Seed Meal Pellets
		16.6 De-Gossypolised Cottonseed Meal
	Chapter 17 Bagging and Storage of De-Oiled Meal
		17.1 Lump Separation and Grinding
		17.2 Meal Bagging
		17.3 Meal Storage and Dispatch
	Chapter 18 Effect of Processing on Quality of Oil and Meal
		18.1 Oil Quality
		18.2 Quality of Rice Bran Oil
		18.3 Quality of Lecithin
		18.4 Quality of Soybean Meal
		18.5 Cotton Seed Meal
	Chapter 19 Utility Requirement of Oil Extraction Plants
	Chapter 20 Environmental and Safety Issues
		20.1 Safety Issues and Precautions
			20.1.1 Common Safety Issues
			20.1.2 Flammable and Explosion-prone Solvent
			20.1.3 Fire Hazards
		20.2 Environment Issues
			20.2.1 Water Pollution
			20.2.2 Air Pollution
Appendices
References
Index