Principles of Neurochemistry: Fundamentals and Applications

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Basics of Neurochemistry
	Molecular Biology of Nervous System
		1	 Neurons
		2	 Resting Membrane Potential
		3	 Action Potential
			3.1	 Propagation of the Action Potential
		4	 Synaptic Transmission
		5	 Chemical Synaptic Transmission
		6	 Electrical Synapses
		7	 Neurotransmitters and Synaptic Neurotransmission
		8	 Neuropeptides
		9	 Conclusion
		References
	Neurochemicals in Nervous System and Exploring the Chemical Make-Up of Human Brain
		1 Introduction: Chemical Control of Brain
		2 Endogenous Agents in Nervous System
			2.1	 Acetylcholine
				2.1.1	 Chemistry
				2.1.2	 Location and Function
				2.1.3	 Neurotransmission of Acetylcholine
			2.2	 Catecholamines
				2.2.1	 Chemistry
				2.2.2	 Location and Function
					Dopamine
					Norepinephrine
				2.2.3	 Neurotransmission of Catecholamines
			2.3	 Serotonin
				2.3.1	 Chemistry
				2.3.2	 Location and Function
				2.3.3	 Neurotransmission of Serotonin
			2.4	 Histamine
				2.4.1	 Chemistry
				2.4.2	 Location and Function
				2.4.3	 Neurotransmission of Histamine
			2.5	 Glutamate
				2.5.1	 Chemistry
				2.5.2	 Location and Function
				2.5.3	 Neurotransmission of Glutamate
			2.6	 GABA
				2.6.1	 Chemistry
				2.6.2	 Location and Function
				2.6.3	 Neurotransmission of GABA
			2.7	 Glycine
				2.7.1	 Chemistry
				2.7.2	 Location and function
		3 Exogenous Agents in Nervous System
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Chemistry of Neurochemicals: Psychopharmaceuticals and Neuropeptides
		1 Introduction
		2 Neuropeptides
		3 Classification of Neuropeptide
		4 Secretion of Neuropeptide
			4.1 Apelins
			4.2 Neuropeptide Y
			4.3 Neuromedin
			4.4 Enkephalins
			4.5 Orexin
			4.6 Nociceptin
			4.7 Endothelin
			4.8 Prolactin-Releasing Peptide
			4.9 Galanin
			4.10 Neurotensin
			4.11 Vasopressin
			4.12 Somatostatin
		5 Receptors for Neuropeptide
		6 Psychopharmaceuticals
			6.1 Neurodegenerative Disorder
				6.1.1	 Parkinson’s Disease
				6.1.2	 Alzheimer’s Disease
			6.2 Muscarinic Agonists
				6.2.1	 Epilepsy
			6.3 Ethosuximide
			6.4 Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines
			6.5 Valproic Acid/Sodium Valproate
			6.6 Lamotrigine
			6.7 Vigabatrin (Gamma-Vinyl GABA)
			6.8 Tiagabine
			6.9 Gabapentin
				6.9.1	 Depression
		7 Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
			7.1 Fluoxetine and Paroxetine
		8 Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor (SNRI)
			8.1 Duloxetine and Venlafaxine
			8.2 Mono-Amino Oxidase Inhibitor (MAO-I)
				8.2.1	 Schizophrenia
			8.3 Anxiety and Hypnosis
		9 Conclusion
		References
	Role of Chemical Agents in Nervous System: A Paradigm
		1 Introduction
		2 Cells of Nervous System
			2.1 Nerve Impulses
			2.2 Parts of Nervous System
				2.2.1	 Acetylcholine
				2.2.2	 Glutamate
					AMPA Receptors (AMPARs)
					NMDA Receptors (NMDARs)
					Kainate Receptors
					Metabotropic Receptors
		3 GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)
			3.1	 GABAergic System
			3.2 Synthesis and Inactivation of GABA: Cycle Neuron-Astrocyte
				3.2.1	 GABAA
				3.2.2	 GABAB
				3.2.3	 GABAC
		4 Serotonin
			4.1 Synthesis and Inactivation of Serotonin
		5 Dopamine
			5.1 Synthesis of Dopamine
			5.2 Chemical Synthesis of Dopamine
			5.3 Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
			5.4 Degradation of Noradrenaline
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Pathophysiology of Neurodegenerative Diseases: Basics to Advanced
		1 Introduction
		2 Etiopathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease
			2.1 Definition
			2.2 Types of Alzheimer’s Disease
			2.3 Epidemiology
			2.4 Etiology
			2.5 Risk Factors
			2.6 Pathogenesis
			2.7 Signs and Symptoms
			2.8 Pathology
			2.9 Complications
			2.10 Biomarkers for Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease
			2.11 Treatment
		3 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Revisiting Neurodegenerative Diseases
	Current Perspectives in the Management of Neurodegenerative Alzheimer’s Disease: Preclinical and Clinical Status
		1 Introduction
		2 Pathophysiology
			2.1 Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis
			2.2 Hyper-phosphorylation of Tau Protein
			2.3 Oxidative Stress Hypothesis
			2.4 Cholinergic Hypothesis
			2.5 Inflammatory Hypothesis
			2.6 Metal Ion Hypothesis
		3 Drug Targets for AD
			3.1 Cholinergic Neurotransmitter-Targeted Drugs
			3.2 Amyloid Peptide-Targeted Drugs for the AD Management
				3.2.1	 Decreasing Aβ Production by β-Secretase Inhibitors
				3.2.2	 Decreasing Aβ Production by γ-Secretase Inhibitors
				3.2.3	 Decreasing Aβ Production by α-Secretase Activators
				3.2.4	 Prevention of Aβ Aggregation for AD Management
				3.2.5	 Active Immunotherapy for AD Management
				3.2.6	 Passive Immunotherapy for AD Management
			3.3 Tau Protein-Targeted Drugs for AD Management
			3.4 Neurotrophin-Based Drugs for AD Management
			3.5 Mitochondrial Targeted Drugs for AD Management
			3.6 PPAR-γ-Targeted Drugs for AD Management
			3.7 Multi-Targeted Drugs for AD Management
		4 Relationship of Neurochemical Alteration and Restoration Strategy of Neuron in AD
		5 Advantages and Disadvantages of AD Drug Therapy
		6 Conclusion
		7 Future Perspective
		References
	Revisiting Alzheimer’s Disease
		1 Introduction
		2 Classification of Alzheimer’s Disease
			2.1 Based on Aetiology
				2.1.1	 Familial AD (fAD)/Autosomal Dominant AD (ADAD)/Early Onset
				2.1.2	 Sporadic AD (sAD)/Late Onset
			2.2 Based on Severity of the Disease
				2.2.1	 Mild
				2.2.2	 Moderate
				2.2.3	 Severe
		3 Revisiting AD Hypotheses
			3.1 Cholinergic Hypothesis
			3.2 Tau Hypothesis
			3.3 Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis
		4 Bioflocculant Hypothesis: An Implication for Amyloid Hypothesis
		5 Current Treatment Modality
		6 Potential Therapeutic Interventions
			6.1 Anti-Tau Strategies
				6.1.1	 Microtubule-Stabilizing Drugs
				6.1.2	 Tau Filament Formation and Tau Phosphorylation Inhibitors
				6.1.3	 Tau Aggregation Blockers
				6.1.4	 Tau Degradation Enhancers
			6.2 Anti-amyloid Strategies
				6.2.1	 β-Secretase Inhibitors
				6.2.2	 γ-Secretase Inhibitors
				6.2.3	 Aβ Vaccination
				6.2.4	 NSAIDs
				6.2.5	 Statins
				6.2.6	 Prevention of Amyloid Aggregation
		7 Revisiting Rodent Models
		8 Clinical Diagnosis of AD
			8.1 History of Current Illness and Relevant Review of Symptoms
			8.2 Physical Examination
			8.3 Cognitive Screening
			8.4 Laboratory Studies
			8.5 Biomarkers
		9 Neuroimaging Biomarkers
			9.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			9.2 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
		10 AD Clinical Trials: A Look at Recent Progress
			10.1 A Presumed Wave in Mild AD: Solanezumab
			10.2 A Major Gesture in a Tiny Trial for the Proof of Concept: Aducanumab
			10.3 “Secondary Prevention” Trials
		11 Conclusion
		References
	Advancement and Challenges in Parkinson’s Disease: A Recent Outlook
		1 Introduction
		2 Drug Therapy
		3 Surgical Interventions for PD
		4 Immune-Based Therapy
		5 Gene Therapy
		6 Targeting α-Synuclein (α-Syn)
		7 Cell-Based Therapy
		8 Future Prospects
		9 Conclusion
		References
	Post-traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD)
		1 Introduction
		2 Clinical Picture
			2.1 Intrusion Symptoms
			2.2 Avoidance Symptoms
			2.3 Negative Alternation in Cognition and Mood
		3 Coexisting Disorders and Mortality
		4 Do Children Show the Same Response as Adults?
		5 Risk Factors Predispose PTSD
		6 Different Categories of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
		7 Pathophysiology and Biological Features of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
		8 How to Manage PTSD?
		References
	Neuropharmacology: Looking Forward to the Future
		1 Introduction
		2 Gene Therapy
		3 Neurovirology
		4 Neuronal Stem Cell Therapy
		5 Multiomics Technology
		6 Neural Engineering
		7 Conclusion
		References