Principles of International Environmental Law 2nd Edition

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedicaton......Page 7
CONTENTS......Page 9
FOREWORD......Page 15
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO THE FIRST EDITION......Page 19
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO THE SECOND EDITION......Page 23
International Court of Justice......Page 26
Awards of international arbitral tribunals......Page 28
European Court of Justice......Page 29
European Court/Commission of Human Rights......Page 34
United Kingdom......Page 35
United States......Page 36
Treaties......Page 37
United Nations......Page 104
Specialised agencies of the United Nations and related bodies......Page 113
Treaty organisations......Page 114
Regional organisations......Page 116
ABBREVIATIONS......Page 126
PART I The legal and institutional framework......Page 133
The environmental challenge......Page 135
The basis for decision-making: science, economics and other values......Page 137
Science......Page 138
Economics......Page 140
Other social objectives......Page 141
Sustainable development......Page 142
The international legal order......Page 143
The functions of international law......Page 144
Sovereignty and territory......Page 145
The environment and international law: defining terms......Page 147
International environmental law: texts, articles and history......Page 150
Primary materials......Page 152
International environmental law......Page 153
International environmental co-operation and policy......Page 154
Environmental economics and development......Page 155
Websites......Page 156
Introduction......Page 157
From early fisheries conventions to the creation of the United Nations......Page 158
From the creation of the United Nations to Stockholm: 1945–1972......Page 162
UNCCUR......Page 163
The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment......Page 167
Post-Stockholm: treaties and other international acts......Page 172
1978 UNEP draft Principles......Page 175
1981 Montevideo Programme......Page 176
1982 World Charter for Nature......Page 177
1980 World Conservation Strategy/1991 ‘Caring for the Earth’ Strategy......Page 179
The Brundtland Report and the Report of the Legal Experts Group......Page 180
Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond......Page 182
Conclusions......Page 183
UNCED......Page 184
The Rio Declaration......Page 186
Agenda 21......Page 189
Institutions......Page 191
National law......Page 192
International law......Page 194
Beyond UNCED: trends and directions......Page 195
World Summit on Sustainable Development......Page 198
Conclusions......Page 201
Introduction......Page 202
States......Page 203
International organisations......Page 204
History of international organisational arrangements......Page 205
UNCED......Page 206
The function and role of international organisations......Page 208
United Nations (www.un.org)......Page 210
UN General Assembly......Page 212
UN Environment Programme (www.unep.org)......Page 215
UN Development Programme (www.undp.org)......Page 217
UN Commission on Sustainable Development (www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd.htm)......Page 218
Other subsidiary bodies established by the General Assembly......Page 221
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)......Page 223
Security Council......Page 225
International Court of Justice (www.icj-cij.org)......Page 226
Food and Agriculture Organization (www.fao.org)......Page 227
United Nations Education and Scientific Organization (www.unesco.org)......Page 228
International Maritime Organization (www.imo.org)......Page 229
World Meteorological Organization (www.wmo.ch)......Page 230
World Health Organization (www.who.int)......Page 231
International Atomic Energy Agency (www.iaea.org)......Page 232
Other global institutions......Page 233
OECD (www.oecd.org)......Page 234
Council of Europe (www.coe.int)......Page 237
Africa......Page 238
Americas and the Caribbean......Page 239
Organisations established by environmental treaties......Page 240
Oceans and seas......Page 241
Biological diversity......Page 242
War and environment......Page 243
Non-state actors......Page 244
Scientific community......Page 245
Environmental and developmental organisations......Page 246
Corporate sector......Page 247
Individuals and indigenous communities......Page 249
Conclusions......Page 252
Introduction......Page 255
Treaties......Page 257
The treaty-making process......Page 260
Interpretation......Page 262
Entry into force......Page 265
Reservations and interpretative declarations......Page 266
Relations between international agreements......Page 268
Amendment......Page 270
Acts of international organisations......Page 272
Conference declarations and other acts......Page 274
Customary international law......Page 275
State practice......Page 276
Opinio juris......Page 278
Treaties and custom......Page 279
Regional custom......Page 281
General principles of international law......Page 282
Equity......Page 284
Subsidiary sources......Page 285
Introduction to regulatory approaches......Page 286
Environmental quality standards......Page 287
Product standards......Page 288
Process standards......Page 289
Economic instruments......Page 290
Joint implementation and tradeable permits......Page 293
Subsidies......Page 296
Trade measures......Page 297
Environmental agreements......Page 298
Integrated pollution control......Page 299
Conclusions......Page 301
Introduction......Page 303
Implementation......Page 306
National law......Page 307
National compliance......Page 308
Reporting......Page 312
Enforcement by states......Page 314
Damage to the environment of another state......Page 316
Enforcement by international organisations......Page 323
Enforcement in the national courts......Page 327
International enforcement......Page 330
Introduction......Page 332
Negotiation and consultation......Page 333
Non-compliance procedures......Page 337
Inspection procedures of multilateral development banks......Page 342
NAFTA Commission on Environmental Co-operation......Page 343
Arbitration......Page 344
International courts......Page 346
International Court of Justice......Page 347
UNCLOS and ITLOS......Page 350
Dispute Settlement Body of the World Trade Organization......Page 352
European Court of Justice......Page 354
UNCED......Page 357
Conclusions......Page 359
PART II Principles and rules establishing standards......Page 361
Introduction......Page 363
Principles and rules......Page 364
Sovereignty over natural resources and the responsibility not to cause damage to the environment of other states or to areas…......Page 367
Sovereign rights over natural resources......Page 368
Sovereignty and extra-territoriality......Page 369
Responsibility not to cause environmental damage......Page 373
Principle of preventive action......Page 378
Co-operation......Page 381
Introduction......Page 384
Future generations......Page 388
Sustainable use of natural resources......Page 389
Equitable use of natural resources......Page 393
Integration of environment and development......Page 395
Precautionary principle......Page 398
Polluter-pays principle......Page 411
OECD......Page 413
European Community......Page 415
Principle of common but differentiated responsibility......Page 417
Common responsibility......Page 418
Differentiated responsibility......Page 419
Conclusions......Page 421
Introduction......Page 423
Development of international human rights law......Page 425
Environmental protection and human rights......Page 426
Economic and social rights......Page 429
Civil and political rights......Page 437
War and armed conflict......Page 439
International environmental law during war and armed conflict......Page 440
International law of war and armed conflict: general rules of environmental protection......Page 443
International law of war and armed conflict: special rules of environmental protection......Page 445
Conclusions......Page 448
Introduction......Page 449
Trail Smelter Case......Page 450
Nuclear testing......Page 451
Customary law......Page 453
Urban and transboundary air pollution......Page 454
Introduction......Page 456
1979 LRTAP Convention......Page 457
1984 Monitoring and Evaluation Protocol......Page 458
1985 Sulphur Protocol......Page 459
1988 NO Protocol......Page 460
1991 Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol......Page 461
1994 Sulphur Protocol......Page 464
1998 Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals......Page 465
1998 Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants......Page 466
1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone......Page 467
1988/2001 EC Large Combustion Directive......Page 468
Existing plant emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides......Page 469
New plant emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and dust......Page 470
1991 Canada–US Air Quality Agreement......Page 471
Nitrogen oxides......Page 472
Aircraft emissions: ICAO Convention......Page 473
Ozone depletion......Page 474
1985 Vienna Convention......Page 476
Introduction......Page 477
Control measures: consumption and production......Page 480
Control measures: trade in controlled substances......Page 484
Developing countries......Page 486
Technical, financial and other assistance......Page 487
Institutional arrangements......Page 488
Introduction......Page 489
Preamble, definition, objective and principles......Page 493
General commitments......Page 494
Reporting......Page 495
Specific commitments: sources and sinks......Page 496
Commitments: financial resources and technology transfer......Page 498
Institutional arrangements......Page 499
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol......Page 500
Emissions reduction targets and timetable......Page 503
Emissions trading, joint implementation and the CDM......Page 504
Sinks......Page 506
Reporting and compliance......Page 507
Entry into force and amendments......Page 508
Subsequent developments: the Marrakesh Accords......Page 509
Outer space......Page 514
1967 Outer Space Treaty......Page 515
Outer Space Principles......Page 516
UNCED......Page 517
Promoting sustainable development......Page 518
World Summit on Sustainable Development......Page 520
Conclusions......Page 521
Introduction......Page 523
Development of standards of international law......Page 525
UNCLOS......Page 527
UNEP Regional Seas Programme......Page 531
Mediterranean......Page 532
Gulf of Guinea......Page 534
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden......Page 535
Indian Ocean and East Africa......Page 536
Black Sea and North-East Pacific......Page 537
The framework conventions......Page 538
Other regional arrangements......Page 540
North-East Atlantic and the North Sea......Page 541
Baltic Sea......Page 544
Pollution by dumping......Page 547
1972 London Convention......Page 548
Radioactive waste dumping......Page 552
Sub-seabed disposal of radioactive wastes......Page 553
1996 Protocol......Page 554
1972 Oslo Convention......Page 555
1992 OSPAR Convention......Page 557
UNEP Regional Seas Protocols......Page 558
Pollution from land-based sources including through the atmosphere......Page 559
1995 Global Programme of Action (GPA)......Page 561
1974 Paris Convention......Page 562
1992 OSPAR Convention......Page 566
UNEP Regional Seas Protocols......Page 568
Atmospheric pollution......Page 569
Pollution from vessels......Page 570
UNCLOS......Page 571
MARPOL 73/78......Page 572
Annex I......Page 573
Annex II......Page 574
Annex V......Page 575
Safety agreements......Page 576
UNCLOS......Page 577
Other treaties......Page 579
Environmental emergencies......Page 580
1973 Intervention Protocol......Page 581
1989 Salvage Convention......Page 582
1990 OPRC Convention......Page 583
1969 and 1983 Bonn Agreements......Page 584
UNEP Regional Seas Protocols......Page 585
Liability and compensation......Page 586
UNCED......Page 587
Conclusions......Page 589
Introduction......Page 591
Customary law......Page 593
Lac Lanoux arbitration......Page 595
Helsinki Rules......Page 596
Subsequent developments......Page 597
1997 Watercourses Convention......Page 598
Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project......Page 601
Europe......Page 609
Rhine......Page 610
1992 Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes......Page 614
1909 Washington Treaty Relating to Boundary Waters and Questions Arising Along the Boundary Between the US and Canada......Page 617
Gut Dam arbitration......Page 618
1978 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement......Page 619
Niger basin......Page 621
Southern Africa, including the Zambezi River......Page 622
Mekong River Basin......Page 623
India/Bangladesh and India/Nepal......Page 624
UNCED and WSSD......Page 626
Conclusions......Page 629
Introduction......Page 631
International law......Page 633
Regulatory techniques......Page 635
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species......Page 637
Institutions......Page 638
Preamble and definitions......Page 639
Appendices I, II and III and international trade......Page 640
Amendments......Page 641
Exemptions......Page 643
Marking, ranching and quotas......Page 645
Enforcement......Page 646
1992 Convention on Biological Diversity......Page 647
Preamble and jurisdictional scope......Page 648
Conservation and sustainable use......Page 649
Access to genetic resources and transfer of technology......Page 651
Biotechnology......Page 653
General instruments of regional and sub-regional application......Page 655
1968 African Nature Convention......Page 656
1985 Nairobi SPA Protocol......Page 658
1940 Western Hemisphere Convention......Page 659
1978 Amazonian Treaty......Page 661
The 1990 Kingston SPA Protocol......Page 662
South Pacific......Page 663
1979 Berne Convention......Page 664
1991 Convention on the Protection of the Alps......Page 667
1992 EC Habitats Directive......Page 668
Asia......Page 672
Wetlands......Page 675
Forests......Page 677
1994 International Tropical Timber Agreement......Page 679
1992 Forest Principles......Page 680
Plants......Page 683
Land and soil conservation......Page 687
Marine living resources......Page 690
Introduction......Page 691
Historical background......Page 693
UNCLOS and UNCED......Page 700
1995 Straddling Stocks Agreement and the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries......Page 706
Regional rules for the conservation of fisheries......Page 716
Driftnet fishing......Page 720
Marine mammals and tuna......Page 722
Tuna......Page 729
WSSD Plan of Implementation......Page 732
Birds......Page 733
Other land animals......Page 737
Migratory species......Page 738
Cultural and natural heritage and landscape......Page 743
Conclusions......Page 747
Introduction......Page 750
Accident prevention, preparedness and response......Page 752
1996 EC ‘Seveso’ Directive......Page 754
1992 Industrial Accidents Convention......Page 755
Chemicals, pesticides and other dangerous substances......Page 757
Registration and classification (including labelling and packaging)......Page 758
Production and use......Page 760
International trade......Page 762
1985 FAO Code of Conduct......Page 763
1987 UNEP London Guidelines......Page 765
1998 Chemicals Convention......Page 767
Transport......Page 769
The working environment......Page 770
Radioactive substances......Page 773
Nuclear safety......Page 774
Transport......Page 777
Border area co-operation......Page 778
Emergencies......Page 779
Nuclear weapons and testing, and nuclear-free zones......Page 781
Biotechnology......Page 783
Biodiversity Convention......Page 784
2000 Biosafety Protocol......Page 785
EC law......Page 790
Other hazardous activities......Page 794
Energy......Page 795
Mining......Page 797
Agriculture......Page 801
UNCED and WSSD......Page 802
Toxic and dangerous products......Page 803
Management of biotechnology......Page 804
Conclusions......Page 805
Introduction......Page 807
Defining and treating waste......Page 809
Municipal waste......Page 810
Hazardous and toxic wastes (industrial, agricultural and mining waste and sewage sludge)......Page 811
Prevention and treatment......Page 813
Disposal at sea......Page 816
Disposal into rivers and lakes by other land-based sources......Page 817
Incineration......Page 818
Landfill and other land disposal and storage......Page 819
Recycling and re-use......Page 820
International movement (including trade) in waste......Page 822
The 1989 Basel Convention......Page 823
1991 Bamako Convention......Page 827
1990 IAEA Code of Conduct on Radioactive Waste and 1997 Joint Convention on Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste......Page 829
Regulation (EC) No. 259/93: waste shipment......Page 831
Directive 92/3/EURATOM: radioactive waste shipment......Page 835
Hazardous wastes......Page 837
Other non-radioactive wastes......Page 838
Radioactive wastes......Page 839
Conclusions......Page 840
14 The polar regions: Antarctica and the Arctic......Page 842
Introduction......Page 843
1959 Antarctic Treaty......Page 844
1972 Antarctic Seals Convention......Page 845
1980 CCAMLR......Page 846
1988 CRAMRA......Page 848
Resource activities......Page 850
Compliance......Page 852
1991 Environment Protocol......Page 853
Institutional arrangements......Page 857
Other treaty provisions......Page 858
The Arctic......Page 859
AEPS......Page 860
Conclusions......Page 862
Introduction......Page 864
Sources and institutions......Page 866
European Environment Agency......Page 871
Historical development......Page 872
Single European Act (1986)......Page 874
Maastricht Treaty on European Union (1992)......Page 877
Agreement on the European Economic Area (1992)......Page 879
Amsterdam Treaty (1997)......Page 880
General policy and principles......Page 881
Integrated pollution prevention and control......Page 886
Air quality......Page 887
Air framework......Page 888
Motor cars......Page 890
Non-road mobile machinery......Page 891
Fuels and lead......Page 892
Ozone layer......Page 893
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide......Page 894
Industrial plants......Page 895
Waste incineration plants......Page 896
Air pollution by ozone and other substances......Page 898
Climate change and energy efficiency......Page 899
Water quality......Page 900
Water Framework Directive......Page 901
Drinking water......Page 903
Bathing water......Page 904
Dangerous substances......Page 905
Groundwater......Page 906
Protection of fish......Page 907
Urban waste water......Page 908
Marine pollution......Page 910
Nature and biodiversity......Page 911
Fisheries......Page 913
Noise......Page 915
Chemicals, hazardous substances, industrial risks and biotechnology......Page 916
Waste......Page 918
Waste framework......Page 919
Hazardous waste......Page 921
Disposal of particular wastes......Page 923
Treaties......Page 924
Radioactive substances......Page 925
Conclusions......Page 926
PART III Techniques for implementing international principles and rules......Page 929
Introduction......Page 931
Non-binding instruments......Page 933
UNCED and the ILC......Page 934
Treaties and other binding instruments......Page 935
1982 UNCLOS......Page 937
Directive 85/337/EEC (as amended)......Page 939
Application of the Directive......Page 942
Directive 2001/42/EC and strategic environmental assessment......Page 944
1986 Noumea Convention......Page 945
1991 Espoo Convention......Page 946
1991 Antarctic Environment Protocol......Page 950
Biodiversity and risk assessment......Page 951
World Bank and other multilateral lending institutions......Page 953
Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Case......Page 954
Conclusions......Page 956
Introduction......Page 958
Information exchange......Page 961
Reports by organisations......Page 964
Reports under treaties or other agreements......Page 965
Reports of events other than emergencies......Page 968
Consultation......Page 970
Notification of emergency situations......Page 973
Nuclear accidents......Page 976
1986 Notification Convention......Page 977
Monitoring and other information gathering......Page 979
Treaty arrangements......Page 980
UNCED......Page 983
Access to environmental information......Page 984
EC Directive on Access to Environmental Information......Page 986
1992 OSPAR Convention......Page 988
1998 Aarhus Convention......Page 990
Public education and awareness......Page 992
Eco-labelling......Page 993
Eco-auditing and accounting......Page 995
Environmental accounting......Page 996
Environmental auditing......Page 998
Conclusions......Page 999
Introduction......Page 1001
State liability......Page 1003
Introduction......Page 1004
General international law......Page 1006
Defining environmental damage......Page 1008
Threshold at which environmental damage entails liability......Page 1010
Standard of care......Page 1013
Reparation......Page 1014
UN Compensation Commission......Page 1022
International crimes......Page 1026
Space Liability Convention......Page 1028
UNCLOS......Page 1031
Climate Change Convention......Page 1032
The work of the ILC......Page 1033
Civil liability for environmental damage under international law......Page 1036
Nuclear installations......Page 1037
1960 Paris Convention......Page 1038
1963 Vienna Convention......Page 1040
Oil pollution......Page 1044
1992 Civil Liability Convention......Page 1045
The 1992 Fund Convention......Page 1047
TOVALOP, CRISTAL and OPOL......Page 1054
Marine environment......Page 1055
General......Page 1056
European Community......Page 1058
Transport......Page 1062
CRAMRA......Page 1063
Antarctic Environment Protocol......Page 1064
Council of Europe......Page 1065
UNECE......Page 1069
Conclusions......Page 1070
Introduction......Page 1072
Trade measures in international environmental agreements......Page 1074
WTO/GATT......Page 1078
Technical barriers to trade......Page 1081
Committee on Trade and the Environment......Page 1083
WTO/GATT Dispute Settlement......Page 1084
Tuna/Dolphin Cases (1991 and 1994)......Page 1085
Tuna/Dolphin I (1991)......Page 1087
Tuna/Dolphin II (1994)......Page 1090
Assessment......Page 1092
Reformulated Gasoline Case (1996)......Page 1093
Shrimp/Turtle Cases (1998 and 2001)......Page 1097
Shrimp/Turtle Case Phase II (2001)......Page 1102
Asbestos Case (2000)......Page 1105
Assessment......Page 1108
Measures for health and safety protection......Page 1109
Beef Hormones......Page 1111
Australian Salmon......Page 1113
Japanese Varietals......Page 1115
Assessment......Page 1116
European Community......Page 1117
Danish Bottles Case......Page 1119
Belgian Waste Disposal Case......Page 1122
Aher-Waggon Case......Page 1124
Danish Bees Case......Page 1125
Belgian Foodstuffs Labelling Case......Page 1126
Swedish Chemical Products Ban Case......Page 1127
German Renewable Energy Case......Page 1128
Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement......Page 1129
North America Free Trade Agreement......Page 1131
Agricultural, sanitary and phytosanitary measures......Page 1133
Non-technical barriers to trade......Page 1134
Institutions and dispute settlement......Page 1136
North American Agreement on Environmental Co-operation......Page 1137
African Economic Community......Page 1139
UNCED......Page 1140
Competition and subsidies......Page 1142
Subsidies......Page 1143
Anti-competitive agreements......Page 1147
Anti-dumping......Page 1148
Conclusions......Page 1149
Introduction......Page 1152
Financial resources and mechanisms......Page 1153
Overseas development assistance......Page 1154
Multilateral development banks......Page 1155
World Bank (www.worldbank.org)......Page 1157
Regional and sub-regional development banks......Page 1159
Environment funds......Page 1161
World Heritage Fund......Page 1162
Montreal Protocol Multilateral Fund......Page 1163
Global Environment Facility......Page 1164
UNCED and the relationship with the Biodiversity and Climate Change Conventions......Page 1166
EC financial resources......Page 1168
Technology transfer and technical assistance......Page 1169
Treaty provisions......Page 1171
The ozone regime......Page 1172
Biodiversity Convention......Page 1173
UNCED and WSSD......Page 1174
Intellectual property......Page 1175
Technology transfer......Page 1176
Patents and other rights......Page 1179
Traditional knowledge......Page 1184
Conclusions......Page 1185
Introduction......Page 1188
Investment treaties......Page 1189
Substantive rules......Page 1190
Dispute settlement......Page 1193
Global rules......Page 1194
Case law......Page 1196
Insurance......Page 1203
Conclusions......Page 1204
INDEX......Page 1206