Principles of Engineering Physics 2

Contents
Preface
Acknowledgment
1. Crystal Structure
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Geometry of Crystals
	1.3 Fundamental Terms
	1.4 Lattice Directions and Planes
		1.4.1 Lattice directions
		1.4.2 Crystal planes
	1.5 Coordination Number
		1.5.1 Simple cubic (SC) lattice
		1.5.2 Face centred cubic (FCC) lattice
		1.5.3 Body centred cubic (BCC) lattice
		1.5.4 Hexagonal closed packed (HCP) lattice
	1.6 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
		1.6.1 Simple cubic (SC) lattice
		1.6.2 Face centred cubic (FCC) lattice
		1.6.3 Body centred cubic (BCC) lattice
		1.6.4 Hexagonal closed packed (HCP) lattice
	1.7 Structures of Typical Crystals
		1.7.1 Diamond structure
		1.7.2 Cubic ZnS structure
		1.7.3 Sodium chloride structure
		1.7.4 Cesium chloride structure
	1.8 Diffraction by Crystal
		1.8.1 Bragg’s law
		1.8.2 Diffraction directions
	1.9 Reciprocal Lattice
		1.9.1 Reciprocal lattice vector
		1.9.2 Properties of reciprocal lattices
	1.10 Diffraction and Reciprocal Lattices
		1.10.1 Evaluation of scattering normal
		1.10.2 Laue’s conditions
		1.10.3 Bragg’s law from
	1.11 Intensity of Diffracted Beam
		1.11.1 Scattering by an electron
		1.11.2 Scattering by an atom
		1.11.3 Scattering by a unit cell
		1.11.4 Structure factor calculations
	Questions
	Problems
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
2. Defects in Crystals
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Point Defects
		2.2.1 Vacancy
		2.2.2 Interstitials
		2.2.3 Frenkel and Schottky defects
		2.2.4 Colour centres
		2.2.5 Polarons
		2.2.6 Excitons
		2.2.7 Antisite defects
		2.2.8 Topological defects
	2.3 Line Defects (One-Dimensional)
		2.3.1 Edge dislocation
		2.3.2 Screw dislocations
	2.4 Interfacial Defects
		2.4.1 External surface
		2.4.2 Grain boundaries
		2.4.3 Twin boundaries
	2.5 Stacking Faults
	2.6 Bulk or Volume Defects
	2.7 Atomic Vibrations
	Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
3. X-rays
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Production of X-rays by a Coolidge Tube
	3.3 Origin of X-rays
		3.3.1 Origin of continuous X-ray spectrum
		3.3.2 Origin of the characteristic spectrum
	3.4 Absorption of X-rays
	3.5 Properties of X-rays
	3.6 Moseley’s Law
	3.7 Bragg’s X-rays Spectrometer
		3.7.1 Determination of crystal structure by Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer
		3.7.2 Powder method
	3.8 Uses of X-rays
	Questions
	Problems
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
4. Bonding in Solids
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Bonding Forces
	4.3 Bonding Energies
	4.4 Classification of Bonds
		4.4.1 Primary bonds
		4.4.2 Secondary bonds
	4.5 Comparison of Different Types of Bonds
	4.6 Allotropy and Polymorphism
	Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
5. Magnetic Properties of Materials
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Magnetic Parameters
	5.3 Magnetic Parameter Relations
	5.4 Classification of Materials from the Magnetic Point of View
	5.5 Origin of Magnetic Moments
	5.6 Diamagnetism
		5.6.1 Langevin’s classical theory of diamagnetism
	5.7 Paramagnetism
		5.7.1 Langevin’s classical theory of paramagnetism
		5.7.2 Quantum theory of paramagnetism
	5.8 Ferromagnetism
		5.8.1 Weiss’s molecular field theory
		5.8.2 Temperature effects on spontaneous magnetization
		5.8.3 Paramagnetic region
		5.8.4 Criticisms of Weiss’s molecular field theory
		5.8.5 Ferromagnetic domains
		5.8.6 Hysteresis
	5.9 Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials
		5.9.1 Hard ferromagnetic materials
		5.9.2 Soft ferromagnetic materials
	5.10 Anti-Ferromagnetism
		5.10.1 Anti-ferromagnetic susceptibility
	5.11 Ferrimagnetism
		5.11.1 Properties of ferrites
		5.11.2 Applications of ferrites
	5.12 Comparisons
	Questions
	Problems
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
6. Superconductivity
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Zero Resistivity
	6.3 Critical Temperature TC
	6.4 Critical Magnetic Field BC
	6.5 Critical Current Density JC
	6.6 Meissner Effect
	6.7 Josephson Effect
	6.8 Theory of Superconductivity: BCS Theory
	6.9 Types of Superconductors
		6.9.1 Type-I superconductors
		6.9.2 Type-II superconductors
	6.10 Phase Diagram
	6.11 Thermodynamic Properties of Superconductors
		6.11.1 Change in entropy
		6.11.2 Change in specific heat
		6.11.3 Thermal conductivity
		6.11.4 Energy gap
	6.12 London Equations
	6.13 Applications of Superconductivity
		6.13.1 Transportation
		6.13.2 Medical
		6.13.3 Fundamental research
		6.13.4 Power systems
		6.13.5 Computers
		6.13.6 Electronics
		6.13.7 Military
		6.13.8 Space research
		6.13.9 Internet
		6.13.10 Pollution control
		6.13.11 Refrigeration
	Questions
	Problems
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
7. Optical Properties of Materials
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Scattering
		7.2.1 Applications
	7.3 Reflection
		7.3.1 Reflection by a dielectric surface
		7.3.2 Reflection by a metallic surface
	7.4 Refraction
		7.4.1 Refraction by a dielectric surface
		7.4.2 Refraction by a metallic surface
	7.5 Absorption
		7.5.1 Macroscopic theory of absorption
		7.5.2 Absorption by electronic polarization
		7.5.3 Quantum theory of absorption
		7.5.4 Absorption by impurity
	7.6 Transmission
	7.7 Atomic Theory of Optical Properties
		7.7.1 Atomic theory of optical properties of metals
		7.7.2 Atomic theory of optical properties of dielectrics
	Questions
	Problems
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
8. Optoelectronic Devices
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Laser
		8.2.1 Metastable state
		8.2.2 Electronic transition
		8.2.3 Spontaneous and stimulated emission probabilities
		8.2.4 Basic principle of lasers
		8.2.5 Three-level laser systems (ruby laser)
		8.2.6 Four-level laser systems (He–Ne laser)
		8.2.7 Broadening of laser radiation
		8.2.8 Coherence
	8.3 Practical Lasers
		8.3.1 Ruby laser
		8.3.2 He–Ne gas laser
		8.3.3 Semiconductor lasers
	8.4 Applications of Lasers
	8.5 Light Emitting Diodes
		8.5.1 Principle
		8.5.2 Construction
		8.5.3 Applications of LED
		8.5.4 Merits of LED over conventional incandescent lamps
	8.6 Optical Fibers
		8.6.1 Structure of optical fibers
		8.6.2 Classification of optical fibers
		8.6.3 Principle of optical fiber communication
		8.6.4 Optical fiber communication system
		8.6.5 Characteristics of light source
		8.6.6 Attenuation in optical fibers
		8.6.7 Applications of optical fibers
	Questions
	Problems
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
9. Dielectric Materials
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 An Overview of Dielectric Polarization
	9.3 Dielectric Parameters
		9.3.1 Dielectric constant er
		9.3.2 Electric dipole moment µ
		9.3.3 Dielectric polarization
		9.3.4 Polarizability a
	9.4 Microscopic Field
		9.4.1 Calculation of
		9.4.2 Calculation of
		9.4.3 Calculation of E3
	9.5 Polarization Mechanisms
		9.5.1 Electronic polarization
		9.5.2 Ionic polarization
		9.5.3 Dipolar (orientation) polarization
		9.5.4 Total polarization
		9.5.5 Clausius–Mossotti relation
	9.6 Effect of Temperature on Dielectrics
	9.7 Effect of Frequency on Dielectrics
		9.7.1 Electronic polarizability
		9.7.2 Ionic polarizability
		9.7.3 Dipolar polarizability
	9.8 Dielectric Breakdown
		9.8.1 Avalanche breakdown
		9.8.2 Thermal breakdown
		9.8.3 Electrochemical breakdown
		9.8.4 Defect breakdown
	9.9 Ferroelectric Materials
		9.9.1 Ferroelectric hysteresis
		9.9.2 Spontaneous polarization
		9.9.3 Applications of ferroelectrics
	9.10 Piezoelectrics
		9.10.1 Simple molecular model of the piezoelectric effect
		9.10.2 Applications of piezoelectric effect
	9.11 Pyroelectrics
		9.11.1 Applications of the pyroelectric effect
	9.12 Dielectrics as Electrical Insulators
	Questions
	Problems
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
10. Electronic Theory of Solids
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Free Electron Theory of Metals
		10.2.1 Classical free electron theory of metals
		10.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages
		10.2.3 Quantum theory of free electrons
	10.3 Statistical Distribution Functions
		10.3.1 Fermi–Dirac distribution function F(e)
		10.3.2 Electronic specific heat
		10.3.3 Thermal conductivity
		10.3.4 Wiedemann–Franz law
	10.4 Conductivity of Metals
	10.5 Hall Effect
		10.5.1 Explanation
		10.5.2 Determination of Hall coefficient RH
		10.5.3 Applications of Hall effect
	Questions
	Problems
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
11. Energy Bands in Solids
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Origin of Energy Bands
		11.2.1 Origin of energy bands: The classical approach
		11.2.2 Origin of energy bands: The quantum mechanical approach
		11.2.3 Dispersion curves
		11.2.4 Conclusions
	11.3 Representation of Band Diagrams of Solids
	11.4 Main Features of Energy Band Theory of Solids
	Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
12. Semiconductors
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Semiconductors
	12.3 Band Theory of Semiconductors
		12.3.1 Intrinsic semiconductors
		12.3.2 Extrinsic semiconductors
	12.4 Compound Semiconductors
		12.4.1 Semiconducting properties
	Questions
	Problems
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
13 Nano Structures and Thin Films
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Nano Scale and its Visualization
	13.3 Nano Science and Nanotechnology
	13.4 Surface to Volume Ratio
	13.5 Quantum Confinement
	13.6 Nano Cluster
	13.7 Nano Fabrication
		13.7.1 Gas phase or condensed phase classification
		13.7.2 Gas phase evaporation method
		13.7.3 Top down approach
		13.7.4 Bottom up approach
	13.8 Preparation of Solid Thin Films
		13.8.1 Physical vapour deposition (PVD)
		13.8.2 Chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
		13.8.3 Sol gel
		13.8.4 Ball milling
	13.9 Few Wonder Nano Materials
		13.9.1 Fullerenes
		13.9.2 Carbon nanotube (CNT)
		13.9.3 Graphene
	Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Answers
Bibliography
Index