Principles of Chemistry: The Molecular Science

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 6
Copyright......Page 7
Contents......Page 11
1 The Nature of Chemistry......Page 30
1.2 Cleaning Drinking Water......Page 31
1.3 How Science Is Done......Page 33
1.4 Identifying Matter: Physical Properties......Page 34
1.5 Chemical Changes and Chemical Properties......Page 39
1.6 Classifying Matter: Substances and Mixtures......Page 41
1.7 Classifying Matter: Elements and Compounds......Page 43
1.8 Nanoscale Theories and Models......Page 45
1.9 The Atomic Theory......Page 48
ESTIMATION: How Tiny Are Atoms and Molecules?......Page 50
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Sir Harold Kroto......Page 54
1.12 Modern Chemical Sciences......Page 56
2 Atoms and Elements......Page 64
2.1 Atomic Structure and Subatomic Particles......Page 65
2.2 The Nuclear Atom......Page 67
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Ernest Rutherford......Page 69
2.4 Uncertainty and Significant Figures......Page 73
2.5 Atomic Numbers and Mass Numbers......Page 75
2.6 Isotopes and Atomic Weight......Page 77
2.7 Amounts of Substances: The Mole......Page 80
2.8 Molar Mass and Problem Solving......Page 82
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Dmitri Mendeleev......Page 83
ESTIMATION: The Size of Avogadro's Number......Page 81
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS: Periodic Table Stamp......Page 84
3 Chemical Compounds......Page 91
3.1 Molecular Compounds......Page 92
3.2 Naming Binary Inorganic Compounds......Page 95
3.3 Hydrocarbons......Page 96
3.4 Alkanes and Their Isomers......Page 98
3.5 Ions and Ionic Compounds......Page 100
3.6 Naming Ions and Ionic Compounds......Page 106
3.7 Bonding in and Properties of Ionic Compounds......Page 109
3.8 Moles of Compounds......Page 112
3.9 Percent Composition......Page 116
3.10 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas......Page 117
3.11 The Biological Periodic Table......Page 120
4 Quantities of Reactants and Products......Page 128
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Antoine Lavoisier......Page 129
4.2 Patterns of Chemical Reactions......Page 130
4.3 Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 136
4.4 The Mole and Chemical Reactions: The Macro–Nano Connection......Page 139
4.5 Reactions with One Reactant in Limited Supply......Page 144
4.6 Evaluating the Success of a Synthesis: Percent Yield......Page 150
4.7 Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas......Page 152
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Alfred Nobel......Page 134
ESTIMATION: How Much CO[sub(2)] Is Produced by Your Car?......Page 145
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS: Smothering Fire—Water That Isn't Wet......Page 149
5 Chemical Reactions......Page 164
5.1 Exchange Reactions: Precipitation and Net Ionic Equations......Page 165
5.2 Acids, Bases, and Acid-Base Exchange Reactions......Page 172
5.3 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions......Page 180
5.4 Oxidation Numbers and Redox Reactions......Page 184
5.5 Displacement Reactions, Redox, and the Activity Series......Page 188
5.6 Solution Concentration......Page 190
5.7 Molarity and Reactions in Aqueous Solutions......Page 195
5.8 Aqueous Solution Titrations......Page 197
6 Energy and Chemical Reactions......Page 206
6.1 The Nature of Energy......Page 207
6.2 Conservation of Energy......Page 209
6.3 Heat Capacity......Page 215
6.4 Energy and Enthalpy......Page 218
6.5 Thermochemical Expressions......Page 224
6.6 Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions......Page 226
6.7 Where Does the Energy Come From?......Page 230
6.8 Measuring Enthalpy Changes: Calorimetry......Page 232
6.9 Hess's Law......Page 234
6.10 Standard Molar Enthalpies of Formation......Page 237
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: James P. Joule......Page 208
ESTIMATION: Earth's Kinetic Energy......Page 210
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS: How Small Can a Calorimeter Be?......Page 235
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Reatha Clark King......Page 240
7 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table......Page 250
7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter......Page 251
7.2 Planck's Quantum Theory......Page 253
7.3 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 258
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS: Light Up Your Money......Page 264
7.5 Quantum Numbers, Energy Levels, and Atomic Orbitals......Page 266
7.6 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals......Page 272
7.7 Atom Electron Configurations......Page 273
7.8 Ion Electron Configurations......Page 280
7.9 Periodic Trends: Atomic Radii......Page 283
7.10 Periodic Trends: Ionic Radii......Page 286
7.11 Periodic Trends: Ionization Energies......Page 288
7.12 Periodic Trends: Electron Affinities......Page 289
7.13 Energy Considerations in Ionic Compound Formation......Page 290
ESTIMATION: Turning on the Light Bulb......Page 255
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Niels Bohr......Page 263
8 Covalent Bonding......Page 299
8.1 Covalent Bonding......Page 300
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Gilbert Newton Lewis......Page 301
8.3 Multiple Covalent Bonds......Page 307
8.4 Multiple Covalent Bonds in Hydrocarbons......Page 309
8.5 Bond Properties: Bond Length and Bond Energy......Page 312
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Linus Pauling......Page 317
8.7 Formal Charge......Page 319
8.8 Lewis Structures and Resonance......Page 321
8.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 323
8.10 Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 326
9 Molecular Structures......Page 336
9.1 Using Molecular Models......Page 337
9.2 Predicting Molecular Shapes: VSEPR......Page 338
9.3 Orbitals Consistent with Molecular Shapes: Hybridization......Page 347
9.4 Hybridization in Molecules with Multiple Bonds......Page 352
9.5 Molecular Polarity......Page 354
9.6 Noncovalent Interactions and Forces Between Molecules......Page 357
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Peter Debye......Page 355
10 Gases and the Atmosphere......Page 370
10.1 The Atmosphere......Page 371
10.2 Gas Pressure......Page 373
10.3 Kinetic-Molecular Theory......Page 374
10.4 The Behavior of Ideal Gases......Page 378
10.5 Quantities of Gases in Chemical Reactions......Page 386
10.6 Gas Density and Molar Masses......Page 388
10.7 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures......Page 390
10.8 The Behavior of Real Gases......Page 393
10.9 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, the Greenhouse Effect, and Global Warming......Page 395
ESTIMATION: Thickness of Earth's Atmosphere......Page 372
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS: Nitrogen in Tires......Page 376
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles......Page 381
11 Liquids, Solids, and Materials......Page 405
11.1 The Liquid State......Page 406
11.2 Vapor Pressure......Page 408
11.3 Phase Changes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases......Page 411
11.4 Water: An Important Liquid with Unusual Properties......Page 422
11.5 Types of Solids......Page 424
11.6 Crystalline Solids......Page 426
11.7 Network Solids......Page 432
11.8 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators......Page 434
12 Chemical Kinetics: Rates of Reactions......Page 444
12.1 Reaction Rate......Page 445
12.2 Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate......Page 451
12.3 Rate Law and Order of Reaction......Page 454
12.4 A Nanoscale View: Elementary Reactions......Page 461
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Ahmed H. Zewail......Page 465
12.6 Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions......Page 469
12.7 Reaction Mechanisms......Page 471
12.8 Catalysts and Reaction Rate......Page 474
12.9 Enzymes: Biological Catalysts......Page 477
12.10 Catalysis in Industry......Page 479
ESTIMATION: Pesticide Decay......Page 460
13 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 490
13.1 Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium......Page 491
13.2 The Equilibrium Constant......Page 493
13.3 Determining Equilibrium Constants......Page 501
13.4 The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant......Page 504
13.5 Using Equilibrium Constants......Page 507
13.6 Shifting a Chemical Equilibrium: Le Chatelier's Principle......Page 511
13.7 Equilibrium at the Nanoscale......Page 520
13.8 Controlling Chemical Reactions: The Haber-Bosch Process......Page 522
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS: Bacteria Communicate Chemically......Page 515
ESTIMATION: Generating Gaseous Fuel......Page 518
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Fritz Haber......Page 523
14 The Chemistry of Solutes and Solutions......Page 533
14.1 Solubility and Intermolecular Forces......Page 534
14.2 Enthalpy, Entropy, and Dissolving Solutes......Page 538
14.3 Solubility and Equilibrium......Page 539
14.4 Temperature and Solubility......Page 542
14.5 Pressure and Dissolving Gases in Liquids: Henry's Law......Page 543
14.6 Solution Concentration: Keeping Track of Units......Page 545
14.7 Vapor Pressures, Boiling Points, Freezing Points, and Osmotic Pressures of Solutions......Page 551
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff......Page 556
15 Acids and Bases......Page 566
15.1 The Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases......Page 567
15.2 Carboxylic Acids and Amines......Page 573
15.3 The Autoionization of Water......Page 574
15.4 The pH Scale......Page 576
15.5 Ionization Constants of Acids and Bases......Page 580
15.6 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength......Page 585
15.7 Problem Solving Using K[sub(a)] and K[sub(b)]......Page 586
15.8 Acid-Base Reactions of Salts......Page 591
15.9 Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 596
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Arnold Beckman......Page 578
ESTIMATION: Using an Antacid......Page 579
16 Additional Aqueous Equilibria......Page 603
16.1 Buffer Solutions......Page 604
16.2 Acid-Base Titrations......Page 616
16.3 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant, K[sub(sp)]......Page 623
16.4 Factors Affecting Solubility......Page 626
16.5 Precipitation: Will It Occur?......Page 632
17 Thermodynamics: Directionality of Chemical Reactions......Page 640
17.1 Reactant-Favored and Product-Favored Processes......Page 641
17.2 Chemical Reactions and Dispersal of Energy......Page 642
17.3 Measuring Dispersal of Energy: Entropy......Page 644
17.4 Calculating Entropy Changes......Page 649
17.5 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 650
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Josiah Willard Gibbs......Page 654
17.7 Gibbs Free Energy Changes and Equilibrium Constants......Page 658
17.8 Gibbs Free Energy and Maximum Work......Page 660
ESTIMATION: Gibbs Free Energy and Automobile Travel......Page 663
17.10 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Stability......Page 664
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Ludwig Boltzmann......Page 645
18 Electrochemistry and Its Applications......Page 674
18.1 Redox Reactions......Page 675
18.2 Using Half-Reactions to Understand Redox Reactions......Page 676
18.3 Electrochemical Cells......Page 683
18.4 Electrochemical Cells and Voltage......Page 687
18.5 Using Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 691
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Michael Faraday......Page 695
18.7 Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential......Page 697
18.8 Common Batteries......Page 698
18.9 Fuel Cells......Page 703
18.10 Electrolysis—Causing Reactant-Favored Redox Reactions to Occur......Page 704
18.11 Counting Electrons......Page 708
ESTIMATION: The Cost of Aluminum in a Beverage Can......Page 711
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST: Wilson Greatbatch......Page 699
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS: Hybrid Cars......Page 702
19 Nuclear Chemistry......Page 721
19.1 The Nature of Radioactivity......Page 722
19.2 Nuclear Reactions......Page 723
19.3 Stability of Atomic Nuclei......Page 726
19.4 Rates of Disintegration Reactions......Page 731
19.5 Nuclear Fission......Page 736
19.6 Nuclear Fusion......Page 740
19.7 Nuclear Radiation: Effects and Units......Page 742
ESTIMATION: Counting Millirems: Your Radiation Exposure......Page 744
Appendices......Page 750
Answers to Problem-Solving Practice Problems......Page 791
Answers to Exercises......Page 806
Answers to Selected Questions for Review and Thought......Page 820
Glossary......Page 838
Index......Page 848