Principles and Practice of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
1 Systematic Reviews, Meta-Analysis, and Evidence-Based Medicine
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Narrative Reviews
	Systematic Reviews
		A Brief History of Systematic Reviews
		What Does Systematic Review Involve?
		Why Do We Need Systematic Reviews?
		What Are the Principles of Systematic Reviews?
	What Is a Meta-Analysis?
		A Brief History of Meta-Analyses
	References
2 Literature Search for Systematic Reviews
	Abstract
	Introduction
	MEDLINE
	Searching MEDLINE Through PubMed
	Embase (Excerpta Medica Database)
	Emcare (Nursing and Allied Health)
	Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL)
	Cochrane Library
	Contents of the Cochrane Library
	Grey Literature
	Non-english Literature
	Google Scholar
	Clinical Trial Registries
	References
3 Assessing and Exploring Heterogeneity
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Clinical Heterogeneity
		Methodological Heterogeneity
		Conceptual Heterogeneity
		Statistical Heterogeneity
	Measuring Statistical Heterogeneity
	Dealing with Statistical Heterogeneity
	References
4 Assessment of the Risk of Bias
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Trials Where Blinding Is Difficult
	Difference Between Blinding and Allocation Concealment
	Areas of Debate
	Guidelines for Systematic Reviewers to Assess ROB in the Included Studies
	References
5 Assessment of Publication Bias
	Abstract
	Introduction
	How to Assess Publication Bias
		Funnel Plot
		Egger’s Test
		Begg and Mazumdar Rank Correlation Test
	Dealing with Publication Bias
	References
6 Data Extraction from Included Studies
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Which Data to Extract
	How to Minimise Errors in Data Extraction
	Sources to Obtain Data
	Where to Enter the Data
	Automating Data Extraction
	Conclusions
	References
7 Fixed and Random-Effects Models for Meta-Analysis
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Fixed Effect Model
	Random Effects Model
	References
8 Forest Plots in a Meta-Analysis
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Generating the Forest Plot
		What Is a Forest Plot?
		FEM Vs REM for Meta-Analysis
		The Chi-squared Statistic
		The I-Squared Statistic
		What is Tau2?
		Assessment and Interpretation of the Forest Plot
	References
9 Sensitivity and Subgroup Analyses
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Sensitivity Analysis
	Scope for Sensitivity Analysis in a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
	Conducting Sensitivity Analysis
	Issues After Sensitivity Analysis
	Reporting of Sensitivity Analysis
	Example of a Sensitivity Analysis
	Subgroup Analysis
	What Is Involved In Subgroup Analyses?
	What are the Types of Subgroup Analyses?
	What is Data Mining and Data Dredging in Subgroup Analyses?
	Subgroup Analysis in Clinical Trials and Meta-analysis
	Strategies for Optimising Subgroups
	Interpreting the Results of Subgroup Analyses
	Examples of a Subgroup Analysis
	Sensitivity Versus Subgroup Analyses
	References
10 Rating Certainty of the Evidence Using GRADE Guidelines
	Abstract
	Introduction
	GRADE Levels of Evidence
	Risk of Bias (ROB)
	Inconsistency (Heterogeneity)
	Indirectness
	Imprecision
	Publication/Reporting Bias
	Summary of Findings Table
	Summary
	References
11 Reporting of Meta-Analysis (PRISMA)
	Abstract
	Introduction
	History of PRISMA
	PRISMA Checklist
	Sections/Topics and Checklist Items
	Introduction
	Methods
	Results
	Discussion
	References
12 Critical Appraisal of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
	Abstract
	Introduction
	References
13 Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses of Non-randomised Studies
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Conducting a Systematic Review of Non-RCTs
	Data Extraction
	Assessment of Risk of Bias in Non-RCTs
	Data Synthesis
	Important Issues in Presentation and Interpretation of Results
	Critical Appraisal of Systematic Reviews of Non-rCTs
	References
14 Individual Participant Data (IPD) Meta-Analysis
	Abstract
	Background
	Individual Participant Data (IPD)
	Limitations of AD Meta-Analyses
	Advantages of IPD Meta-Analysis
	Methods
	Reporting
	Results of IPD Versus AD Meta-Analysis
	Limitations and Challenges
	Summary
	References
15 Systematic Reviews of Diagnostic Test Accuracy
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Introduction to Diagnostic Accuracy Studies
	Roadmap for Performing a DTA Systematic Review
	Summary and Conclusions
	References
16 Network Meta-Analysis
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Key Assumptions and Concepts in NMA
	References
17 Systematic Reviews of Animal Studies
	Abstract
	Introduction
	The Need for Systematic Reviews of Animal Research
	The Concept of 3Rs: Replacement, Reduction and Refinement
	Cumulative Meta-Analysis for Achieving ‘Reduction’ Component of the 3Rs
	Establishment of SYRCLE, ARRIVE Guidelines, and the GSPC
	Reducing the Number of Animals Needed for a Study
	Current Issues with Animal Studies
	Benefits of Systematic Reviews in Animal Models
	Methods
	Accurate Sample Size Calculation
	Reporting
	Assessing the Quality of Evidence Using GRADE
	Overcoming Limitations of Preclinical Studies
	Key Messages
	References