Powerfuels: Status and Prospects

Preface
Contents
Introduction
	1 Introduction
Development of the Mobility Sector
Development of the Global Mobility Sector
	1 The Need and Demand for Mobility and Transport from a Global Perspective
	2 Mobility of People
		2.1 Global Differences in Mobility
		2.2 Vehicle Stock
		2.3 Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions
		2.4 Increase in Global Mobility
	3 Freight Transport
		3.1 Freight Transport Worldwide
		3.2 Inland Freight Transport
		3.3 The Future Demand in Freight Transport
	4 Conclusion—More Transportation More CO2
	References
Development of European Road-Based Mobility
	1 Introduction
	2 Evolution of Road-Based Mobility
	3 Taxonomy and Regulatory
		3.1 Taxonomy
		3.2 Regulatory Frameworks
	4 Defossilization via Lower Carbon Energy Carriers
	5 Lower Carbon Fuel Options for Existing Engines
		5.1 Diesel Fuel Options
		5.2 Gasoline Fuel Options
	6 Outlook
	References
Development of European Airborne Mobility and Prospects of Sustainable Aviation Fuels
	1 Introduction
	2 Air Transport Development in the Past (Up to 2021)
	3 Overview of the Forecast Model
	4 Political and Legislative Framework
	5 Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF)
	6 Impact of SAF on Future Traffic and Passenger Volume Development and CO2-Emissions
	7 Summary and Conclusions
	References
Development of Global Seabound Mobility
	1 Introduction
	2 Progressive Growth in Maritime Freight Traffic
		2.1 Development of GDP, World Merchandise Trade, and World Maritime Trade
		2.2 Growing Fleet
		2.3 Vessel Size Growth
		2.4 Increase in Requirements for Capacities in Ports
		2.5 Increase in Canal Passages
		2.6 Increase Safety on Vessels and Reduce Total Losses
		2.7 Digitalization to Reduce GHG Emissions
	3 Frameworks and Initiatives Advancing Climate Neutrality
		3.1 Policies of the IMO
		3.2 European Union—Fit for 55 Activities
		3.3 Clydebank Declaration
		3.4 Call to Action for Shipping Decarbonization
	4 Conversion to Low Carbon and Renewable Fuels
		4.1 Low Carbon Fuels
		4.2 Renewable Fuels
		4.3 Status and Possible Developments
	5 Summary of Challenges for the Decarbonization of Shipping
	References
Hydrogen as a Feedstock
Power Generation from Renewable Energies
	1 Introduction
	2 Photovoltaics
		2.1 Energy Resource and Physical Working Principle
		2.2 Technical and Economic Development
		2.3 Utilization and Potential
	3 Wind Energy (On- and Offshore)
		3.1 Energy Resource and Physical Working Principle
		3.2 Technical and Economic Development
		3.3 Utilization and Potential
	4 Hydropower
		4.1 Energy Resource and Physical Working Principle
		4.2 Technical and Economic Development
		4.3 Utilization and Potential
	5 Energy Supply from Renewable Energies
		5.1 Comparison of Supply Options
		5.2 Optimal Supply Configurations
	6 Conclusion
	References
Freshwater Demand and Availability for Green Hydrogen Production
	1 Introduction
	2 Basics
		2.1 Water Availability
		2.2 Water Drought and Scarcity
		2.3 Water Stress Data and Maps
	3 Water Demands for Hydrogen Production
		3.1 Analysis of Selected Countries
		3.2 Focus: Germany
	4 Conclusion
	References
Seawater and Brackish Water Desalination
	1 Introduction
	2 Conventional Desalination
		2.1 Desalination Pre-Treatment Process
		2.2 Membrane-Based Desalination
		2.3 Thermal Desalination
		2.4 Desalination Products
		2.5 Energy Aspects of Membrane and Thermal Desalination
	3 Desalination Options at the Horizon
		3.1 Novel Water Desalination Technologies
		3.2 Hybrid Desalination Technologies
		3.3 Further Developments and Improvements
	4 Outlook and Conclusion
		4.1 Future Freshwater Demand and Seawater Desalination
		4.2 Potential Development of Global Green Hydrogen Fuel and Water Demand
		4.3 Desalination of Saltwater for Green Hydrogen Production
	References
Markets and Costs for Hydrogen Electrolysis
	1 Introduction
	2 Commercial Status of Hydrogen Electrolysis
	3 Capital Cost of Electrolyzers
		3.1 Current Capital Cost of Electrolyzers
		3.2 Future Capital Cost of Electrolyzers
		3.3 Drivers of Cost Reduction
	4 Levelized Cost of Hydrogen Production
		4.1 The Importance of Electricity Costs
		4.2 Hydrogen Production Cost Estimates
	5 Conclusion
	References
Iridium and Platinum Availability for Electrolyser Production up to 2030
	1 Introduction
	2 Iridium and Platinum Demands
		2.1 Methodology and Assumptions
		2.2 Development of Electrolysis Capacities
		2.3 Iridium and Platinum Demands
	3 Iridium and Platinum Availability
		3.1 Methodology and Assumptions
		3.2 Iridium and Platinum Production
		3.3 Iridium and Platinum Availability
	4 Further Demand and Availability Aspects
	5 Conclusion and Outlook
	6 Conversion Factors
	References
Hydrogen Transport and Storage Options
	1 Introduction
	2 Hydrogen Storage Options
		2.1 Pressurized Hydrogen Storage
		2.2 Liquid Hydrogen Storage
		2.3 Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Storage
		2.4 Metal Hydride Storage
		2.5 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC)
	3 Comparison
	4 Conclusion
	References
Hydrogen Supply Chains
	1 Background
	2 Hydrogen Conditioning
		2.1 Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen
		2.2 Liquid Hydrogen
		2.3 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier
		2.4 Methanol
		2.5 Ammonia
	3 Supply Chains
	4 Analysis and Assessment
		4.1 Approach
		4.2 Application and Results
	5 Conclusion and Outlook
	References
Worldwide Hydrogen Production Potential
	1 Introduction
	2 Hydrogen Color Spectrum
	3 Blue and Green Hydrogen
	4 Blue Hydrogen
		4.1 Blue Hydrogen from Natural Gas
		4.2 Blue Hydrogen Cost
	5 Green Hydrogen
		5.1 Green Hydrogen Production Potential Calculation
		5.2 Green Hydrogen Production Potentials in 2050
	6 Conclusion
	References
Carbon as a Feedstock
Carbon—Classification, Sources, and Potentials
	1 Introduction
	2 The Chemical Element Carbon
		2.1 Carbon Element
		2.2 Carbon Dioxide Compound
	3 Carbon Cycles
		3.1 Slow Carbon Cycle
		3.2 Fast Carbon Cycle
		3.3 Comparison
	4 Carbon Source Classification
		4.1 Fossil Carbon
		4.2 Biogenic Carbon
		4.3 Mixed Carbon Sources
	5 Fossil Carbon Sources
		5.1 Mineral Industry
		5.2 Iron and Steel Industry
		5.3 Non-ferrous Metal Industry
		5.4 Chemical Industry
		5.5 Fossil Carbon Potentials
	6 Biogenic Carbon Sources
		6.1 Biogas and Biomethane
		6.2 Bioethanol
		6.3 Thermochemical Biomass Conversion
		6.4 Biogenic Carbon Potentials
	7 Mixed Carbon Sources
		7.1 Waste Incineration
		7.2 Atmosphere
		7.3 Potentials
	8 Summary and Conclusions
	References
Provision of Pure Carbon Dioxide Streams – Possibilities and Constraints
	1 Introduction
	2 Basics
		2.1 CO2 Point Sources and CO2 Concentrations
		2.2 Energy Demand for Pure CO2 Provision
		2.3 Challenges for Pure CO2 Provision
	3 CO2 Pre-Concentration
		3.1 Pre-Combustion Carbon Capture
		3.2 Oxyfuel-Combustion Carbon Capture
		3.3 Post-Combustion Carbon Capture
		3.4 Comparison
	4 CO2 Extraction
		4.1 Sorption Processes
		4.2 Membrane Separation
		4.3 Low-Temperature “Cryogenic” Separation
		4.4 Comparison
	5 Summary and Conclusion
	References
Direct Air Capture
	1 Introduction
	2 Direct Air Capture in the Context of Powerfuels
	3 Development and Deployment Level
	4 Direct Air Capture Technologies
		4.1 Solid Sorption
		4.2 Liquid Sorption
		4.3 Electrochemical Approaches
		4.4 Membrane-Based Approaches
		4.5 Further Methods
	5 A Note on Direct Air Capture Cost
	6 Summary
	References
CO2 Transport and Storage Options
	1 Introduction
	2 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Characteristics
		2.1 Density
		2.2 Impurities
		2.3 Risks and Hazards
		2.4 Operational Aspects
	3 Conditioning
		3.1 Removal of Impurities
		3.2 Compression
		3.3 Liquefaction
	4 CO2 Interim Storage
		4.1 Fully Pressurized Storage
		4.2 Semi-pressurized/Semi-refrigerated Storage
	5 CO2 Transport
		5.1 Pipeline Transport
		5.2 Ship Transport
		5.3 Rail and Road Transport
	6 Comparison
		6.1 Small-Scale Scenario
		6.2 Medium-Scale Scenario
		6.3 Large-Scale Scenario
	7 Final Consideration
	References
Conversion Processes and Technologies
Classification of Power-to-Gas (PtG) and Power-to-Liquid (PtL) Processes
	1 Introduction
	2 Application Areas of Powerfuels
	3 Power-to-Gas (PtG) and Power-to-Liquid (PtL) Processes
		3.1 Feedstock Supply
		3.2 Power-to-Gas Processes
		3.3 Power-to-Liquid Processes
		3.4 Demarcation from Biofuels
	4 Classification of Power-to-X Products
		4.1 The Hydrogen Rainbow
		4.2 Carbon Sources for PtX Applications
		4.3 Sustainable Carbon-Based PtX Combinations
	5 Conclusion
	References
Reverse Water–Gas Shift for Synthesis Gas Provision—A Core Technology for Powerfuel Production
	1 Introduction
	2 Feedstock
		2.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
		2.2 Hydrogen (H2)
	3 Synthesis Gas
		3.1 Properties
		3.2 Modification of Composition
	4 Reverse Water–Gas Shift
		4.1 Thermodynamic Basics
		4.2 Catalysts
		4.3 Reactor Concepts
		4.4 Process Concepts
	5 Final Consideration
	References
Co-electrolysis
	1 Introduction
	2 Co-electrolysis Fundamentals
		2.1 Basic Pathway Classification
		2.2 Thermodynamics
	3 Technical Realization
		3.1 Cells
		3.2 Stacks
		3.3 Modules
		3.4 Systems
	4 Operation and Performance Evaluation
		4.1 Technical Parameters
		4.2 Economic Parameters
	5 Conclusion
	References
Methanation
	1 Introduction
	2 Fundamentals of Methanation
		2.1 Thermodynamic Limitations of Methanation
		2.2 Catalysts for Methanation
		2.3 Reactors for Methanation
	3 Efforts Towards a Higher Flexibility of Methanation Processes
		3.1 Simulation Studies
		3.2 Experimental Studies
	4 Typical Process Chains, Long-Duration Tests, and Commercialisation
		4.1 Supply of Pure CO2 for Power-To-Gas
		4.2 Operation of Power-To-Gas Plants with Pure CO2
		4.3 Power-To-Gas with Biogas
		4.4 Product Gas from Gasification as Carbon Source
	5 Comparison, Conclusion, and Outlook
	References
Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis
	1 Introduction
	2 Traditional Fischer-Tropsch process
		2.1 Heterogeneous Catalysts
		2.2 Reactions and Product Distribution
		2.3 Traditional Reactor Solutions
	3 Fischer-Tropsch Processes for Powerfuels
		3.1 Catalyst Improvement Through Operando Spectroscopy
		3.2 Reactor Technologies
		3.3 Other Means of Intensification
		3.4 Process Integration of rWGS and FT
	4 The Aspect of Transient Operation in PtL
	5 Comparison and Conclusion
	References
Refining of Fischer–Tropsch Products
	1 Introduction
	2 Conventional Refining
		2.1 Fossil Crude Oil as Feedstock
		2.2 Refinery Processes
		2.3 Conventional Products
	3 Refining of Fischer–Tropsch Synthetic Crude
		3.1 Fischer–Tropsch Syncrude as Feedstock
		3.2 Refining Process Options
		3.3 Synthetic Fischer–Tropsch Products
	4 Developments in the Years to Come
	References
Electricity-Based Methanol
	1 Introduction
	2 Historical Development
	3 Properties and Handling
		3.1 Properties
		3.2 Handling
	4 Methanol Markets
		4.1 Global Production and Use
		4.2 Demand and Production by Region
		4.3 Market Prices
	5 Power-to-Methanol Processes
		5.1 Synthesis Gas Provision
		5.2 Methanol Synthesis
		5.3 Downstream Processing
	6 Techno-Economic and Environmental Aspects
		6.1 Technical Aspects
		6.2 Economic Aspects
		6.3 Environmental Aspects
	7 Summary and Outlook
	8 Excursus—Mixed Alcohol Synthesis
	References
From Conventional to Emerging Ammonia Production Technologies
	1 Ammonia—The Green Energy Carrier of the Future
	2 Conventional and Emerging Technologies for Ammonia Production
		2.1 Conventional Ammonia Production Processes
		2.2 Emerging Green Ammonia Routes
	3 Techno-Economic Evaluations
		3.1 Conventional Ammonia (Haber–Bosch)
		3.2 Green Ammonia
		3.3 Comparison
	4 Application of Ammonia as a Green Energy Vector
		4.1 Basic Properties of Ammonia
		4.2 Ammonia Cracking
		4.3 Application Options as a Carbon-Free Energy Carrier
	5 Ammonia in a Decarbonized Future
		5.1 Scenarios for Ammonia Decarbonization
		5.2 Integration of Green Ammonia in a Low-Carbon Economy
	6 Conclusion
	References
Alcohol to Hydrocarbons
	1 Introduction
	2 Alcohols
		2.1 Methanol
		2.2 Ethanol
		2.3 Butanol
	3 Need for Alcohol to Hydrocarbon Processes
		3.1 Gasoline
		3.2 Kerosene
		3.3 Diesel
	4 Alcohol to Hydrocarbon
		4.1 Dehydration
		4.2 Oligomerization
		4.3 Hydrogenation
		4.4 Fractionation
	5 Overall Processes
		5.1 Methanol
		5.2 Ethanol
		5.3 Butanol
	6 Final Consideration
	References
Blending of Aviation Powerfuels
	1 Introduction
	2 Kerosene Specifications and Blending
		2.1 Kerosene Specifications
		2.2 Blending of Synthetic Kerosene
	3 Conventional Kerosene
		3.1 Chemical Composition
		3.2 Aromatics Content
		3.3 Density
		3.4 Distillation Curve
	4 Synthetic (Powerfuel) Kerosene
		4.1 Fischer–Tropsch Kerosene
		4.2 Alcohol-to-Jet Kerosene
	5 Blending Properties
		5.1 Aromatics Content
		5.2 Density
		5.3 Distillation Curve
	6 Conclusion and Outlook
	References
Application and Use
Powerfuels for Heavy-Duty Road Transportation
	1 European Road Freight Transport and Truck Market
	2 Legal Framework and Political Goals for Heavy-Duty Road Transport
	3 Technological Assessment and Status Quo of Market Development
		3.1 Status of Battery Electric Trucks
		3.2 Status of Fuel Cell Electric Trucks
		3.3 Synopsis on Catenary Electric Trucks
		3.4 Status of ICE-Truck with Renewable Fuels
	4 Economic and Environmental Assessment
	5 Future Development Pathways
	6 Infrastructure Setup
	7 Social Acceptance of Alternative Fuels for Trucks
	8 Summary
	References
Power-To-Liquid (PTL) Kerosene and Opportunities to Introduce Green Hydrogen in Aviation
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Kerosene-Type Aviation Fuels and the Need for Electricity-Based Energy Carriers
		1.2 Clean Aviation Fuels and Their Role in Reducing Air Quality Emissions and Non-CO2 Climate Impacts
	2 Kerosene Range Hydrocarbons as a Turbine Fuel for Civil Aviation
	3 Power-to-Liquids—Synthetic Kerosene for Aviation
		3.1 PtL Jet Fuel Production Pathway
		3.2 Approval Status of PtL Jet Fuel
		3.3 Differences to Conventional Jet Fuel
		3.4 Methanol-Derived PtL Kerosene
	4 Toward Fully Synthetic Jet Fuel
	5 Using Green Hydrogen in Aviation
		5.1 Integration to Jet Fuel Production Pathways
		5.2 Hydrogen Aircraft
	6 Summary and Outlook
	References
Climate Impacts of Aviation and the Potential of Aviation Powerfuels Toward Their Mitigation
	1 Introduction
	2 Climate Impacts of Aviation
		2.1 Contrails
		2.2 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
		2.3 Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)
		2.4 Water Vapor (H2O) in the Stratosphere
		2.5 Aerosol Effects
		2.6 CO2 and Non-CO2 Effects
	3 Climate Impact Mitigation Potentials of Aviation Powerfuels
		3.1 Contrails
		3.2 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
		3.3 Water Vapor and Aerosol Climate Impacts
	4 Conclusion
	References
Powerfuels and Alternative Fuels in the Maritime Sector
	1 Introduction
	2 Alternative Fuel Options
		2.1 Liquefied Natural Gas
		2.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gas
		2.3 Methanol
		2.4 Ammonia
		2.5 Hydrogen
		2.6 Diesel Fuels
	3 Use of Alternative Fuels On-Board Ships
		3.1 Fuel Storage
		3.2 Propulsion Systems
		3.3 Bunkering
	4 Comparison and Development
		4.1 Regulatory Framework
		4.2 Suitability for Ship Operations
		4.3 Availability
	5 Conclusion
	References
Power-to-Chemicals: Defossilization of the Chemical Industry via PtX
	1 Introduction
	2 Background
		2.1 Demands of Fossil Resources and Resulting GHG Emissions
		2.2 Options for Defossilization
	3 Primary Chemicals
		3.1 Synthesis-Based Chemicals
		3.2 High-Value Chemicals
	4 Production Pathways
		4.1 Ammonia Production
		4.2 Methanol Production
		4.3 Olefin Production
		4.4 Aromatics Production
	5 Systemic Placement
	6 Summary
	References
Systems-Related Aspects
Sustainability Aspects of Powerfuels and Their Certification
	1 Introduction
	2 Policies for Sustainable Powerfuels—Regulatory Overview
		2.1 Powerfuels in Global Regulatory Frameworks
		2.2 Powerfuels in the EU Context
	3 Sustainability Certification of Renewable Fuels
		3.1 Basics of Sustainability Certification
		3.2 The Sustainability Certification “Ecosystem”
		3.3 The Sustainability Certification Process for Powerfuels
	4 Sustainability Aspects of Powerfuels and Their Certification
		4.1 Electricity Consumption
		4.2 Carbon Sources
		4.3 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions
		4.4 Land Use and Land Use Change
		4.5 Water Use
		4.6 Social Impact
		4.7 Traceability and Chain-of-Custody
	5 Conclusion
	References
Chain-of-Custody Models for Renewable Fuels: A Comparison of Basic Characteristics
	1 Introduction
	2 Overview
		2.1 Physical Separation Approach
		2.2 Mass Balance Approach
		2.3 Certificate Transfer Approach (Book and Claim)
		2.4 Overall Comparison
	3 Application in the Context of SAF
		3.1 Identity Preservation and Segregation Model
		3.2 Tank- and Site-Level Mass Balance Model
		3.3 Supply Chain Level Mass Balance Models
		3.4 Certificate Transfer Model (Book and Claim)
	4 Comparison and Discussion
		4.1 Approach and Comparison Criteria
		4.2 Analysis and Results
		4.3 Discussion on Suitability Aspects
	5 Conclusion
	References
A Holistic Approach to Sustainability of Powerfuels
	1 Introduction
	2 Impact of Powerfuels on the Planet
		2.1 Powerfuels Specific Risks for Overflowing Planetary Boundaries
		2.2 Formulating Safeguards to Minimize the Planetary Risks
	3 Impact of Powerfuels on People and Prosperity
		3.1 Risks, Safeguards, and Co-benefits
		3.2 Socioeconomic Risks at Project Level
		3.3 Socioeconomic and Political Risks at Policy and Partnership Level
		3.4 Forecasting and Harnessing Socioeconomic and Political Co-benefits
	4 Getting Ambitious Sustainability Criteria into Practice
		4.1 Acceptance, Transparency, and Participation
		4.2 Implementation of Holistic Sustainability Standards
	5 Final Considerations
	References
Market Introduction and Ramp-Up of Powerfuels under Political and Regulatory Aspects
	1 Introduction
	2 Challenges and Opportunities for a PtL Fuel Deployment
		2.1 Technical Status Quo of PtL Fuel Production
		2.2 Economics of PtL Fuel Production
		2.3 Geographical Scope of the Future PtL Fuel Market
		2.4 Definition and Certification of Renewable and Sustainable PtL Fuels
		2.5 Integration into a Cross-Sector Strategy for Reaching Climate Neutrality
		2.6 Overview of Challenges and Opportunities for PtL Fuel Deployment
	3 Current Regulatory and Policy Design in Europe and Germany
		3.1 Renewable Energy Directive
		3.2 GHG Emission Reduction Quota in Germany
		3.3 ReFuelEU Aviation Regulation and FuelEU Maritime Regulation
		3.4 Emission Trading System 2
		3.5 H2Global/European Hydrogen Bank
	4 Main Policy Design to Ramp-Up the Market for PtL Fuels in Europe and Germany
	5 Conclusion
	References
Importing Powerfuels to Europe: Options and Challenges
	1 Trading Hydrogen and Other Power-Based Fuels Internationally Will Be Necessary to Achieve Climate Protection Goals
	2 Importing Green Hydrogen and Other Power-Based Fuels Could Be Economically Attractive on a Cost Basis
	3 Several Countries Are Promising Candidates for Producing Green Powerfuels
	4 The War in Ukraine Has Forced a Reassessment of Energy Partnerships and Highlights the Importance of Diversification
	5 International Infrastructure Must Be Established to Transport Hydrogen
	6 Investment Risks Can Be a Significant Obstacle
	7 There is a High Degree of Uncertainty Regarding Future Price Developments
	8 The Hydrogen Economy Must Be Integrated into the Overarching Governance Structures for Transforming the Energy System
	9 Local Economic Competencies Are Required to Successfully Produce Hydrogen and Its Synthesis Products
	References
PtL Fuels and Biofuels: A Dream Team?
	1 Introduction
	2 Comparison of Biofuels and PtL Fuels
	3 Combining Biofuels and PtL Fuels
		3.1 Separate Production, Combined Deployment
		3.2 Integrated Production Pathways
	4 Overview of Economics of Biofuels, PtL Fuels and Combinations
	5 Overview of Environmental Impacts of Biofuels, PtL Fuels and Combinations
	6 Potential Roadblocks and Industry Reflections
		6.1 PtL Fuels and Biofuels in Road Transport—An Automotive Perspective
		6.2 PtL Fuels and Biofuels in Aviation—An Aviation Perspective
		6.3 PtL Fuels and Biofuels in Transport—A Fuel Producer’s Perspective
	7 Conclusions
	References