power system capacitors

Power System Capacitors......Page 2
Dedicated to......Page 6
Series Introduction......Page 7
Preface......Page 9
About the author......Page 12
Contents......Page 13
Biblio.pdf......Page 0
1.1 HISTORY OF CAPACITORS......Page 19
1.1.1 Other Capacitors......Page 21
1.1.2 Power Capacitors......Page 22
1.2 CAPACITORS FOR THE POWER INDUSTRY......Page 23
1.2.3 The Case......Page 25
1.2.5 Discharge Resistors......Page 26
1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK......Page 27
REFERENCES......Page 33
2.1 CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATES AND SPHERES......Page 35
Parallel Plate Capacitor......Page 37
Example 2.1......Page 38
Example 2.2......Page 39
Spherical Capacitor......Page 40
2.2 CYLINDRICAL CAPACITORS......Page 42
Example 2.3......Page 43
2.3 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR......Page 44
CAPACITOR......Page 45
Discharging of a Capacitor......Page 48
Example 2.5......Page 49
PROBLEMS......Page 50
REFERENCES......Page 51
Total Current......Page 52
Power Factor......Page 53
Example 3.1......Page 54
The Leading Power Factor......Page 55
Example 3.2......Page 56
Example 3.3......Page 57
3.2 THE SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER......Page 59
V-Curves......Page 60
PROBLEMS......Page 61
REFERENCES......Page 62
4.1.1 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)......Page 64
4.1.2 The International ElectrotechnicalCommission (IEC)......Page 65
4.1.3 The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)......Page 67
4.2 STANDARDS RELATED TO CAPACITORS......Page 69
4.3 CONCLUSIONS......Page 73
Standards on Circuit Breakers Related to Power System Capacitors......Page 74
IEC Standards......Page 75
NEMA Standards......Page 76
5.1.1 Externally Fused Capacitor Banks......Page 77
5.1.2 Internally Fused Capacitor Banks......Page 78
5.1.3 Fuseless Capacitor Banks......Page 80
5.2 CAPACITOR SPECIFICATIONS......Page 81
5.2.2 kVAR Ratings......Page 82
5.2.3 Frequency......Page 84
5.2.4 Ambient Temperature......Page 85
5.2.6 Types of Bushing......Page 86
5.2.8 Internal Discharge Devices......Page 88
5.2.10 Transient Overcurrent......Page 90
5.2.11 Connections for Three-Phase Configurations......Page 91
5.2.13 Dissipation Factor......Page 92
Example 5.4......Page 93
Example 5.5......Page 94
5.3.1 Electrolytic Capacitors......Page 95
5.3.3 Dry Metallized-Film Capacitors......Page 96
5.3.5 Ultra Capacitors......Page 97
PROBLEMS......Page 98
REFERENCES......Page 100
6.1.1 Impulse Withstand Test......Page 101
6.1.3 Thermal Stability Test......Page 102
6.1.4 Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) Test......Page 103
6.1.6 Short-Circuit Discharge Test......Page 104
6.2.1 Short Time Overvoltage Tests......Page 105
6.2.2 Terminal-to-Case Test......Page 106
6.2.7 Fuse Capability Tests for Internally Fused Capacitors......Page 107
6.3.1 Capacitance Measurement......Page 108
6.3.3 High Voltage Insulation Strength Tests......Page 109
REFERENCES......Page 111
7.1.2 Branch Capacitor Bank......Page 112
7.1.3 Local Capacitor Bank......Page 113
7.2.1 Pole-Mounted Capacitor Banks......Page 114
7.2.2 Shunt Capacitor Banks at EHV Levels......Page 115
7.2.3 Substation Capacitor Banks......Page 116
7.2.4 Metal-Enclosed Capacitor Banks......Page 117
7.2.6 Fixed Capacitor Banks......Page 118
7.2.7 Switched Capacitor Banks......Page 119
7.2.8 Installation of Capacitors on the Low Voltage Side of the Transformer......Page 121
7.2.9 Installation of Capacitors on the High Voltage Side of the Transformer......Page 122
7.3 CONSIDERATIONS IN HANDLING SUBSTATION CAPACITORS......Page 123
7.3.1 Maximum Capacitor Bank Size......Page 124
Example 7.1......Page 125
7.3.2 Minimum Capacitor Bank Size......Page 126
7.3.4 Effect of Voltage Rise Limit on the Switched Capacitor......Page 127
7.4.1 Grounded Wye......Page 128
7.4.2 Ungrounded Wye......Page 129
7.4.3 Ungrounded Split-Wye......Page 130
7.4.5 Delta Connected......Page 131
7.4.6 The H-Configuration......Page 132
7.5.1 Selection of Cables for Capacitor Circuit......Page 133
Example 7.3......Page 135
PROBLEMS......Page 136
REFERENCES......Page 137
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 139
Example 8.1......Page 140
8.2 FIXED VERSUS SWITCHED CAPACITORS......Page 142
8.2.1 Sizing and Location of Capacitors......Page 143
8.2.2 Effect of Shunt Capacitors on Radial Feeders......Page 144
8.2.3 Switched Capacitors......Page 148
8.2.4 Released System Capacity......Page 149
8.3 FIXED AND SWITCHED CAPACITOR APPLICATIONS......Page 150
Example 8.4......Page 151
PROBLEMS......Page 152
REFERENCES......Page 153
9.2 REACTIVE POWER SUPPORT......Page 154
9.3 VOLTAGE PROFILE IMPROVEMENTS......Page 155
Example 9.1......Page 157
9.3.1 Voltage Rise due to the Addition of Shunt Capacitors......Page 158
Example 9.2......Page 159
9.4 LINE AND TRANSFORMER LOSS REDUCTIONS......Page 160
Example 9.4......Page 161
Example 9.5......Page 162
Example 9.6......Page 163
9.5.1 Release of Generator Capacity......Page 164
9.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 165
REFERENCES......Page 166
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 167
10.2 SERIES CAPACITORS ON RADIAL FEEDERS......Page 168
Solution......Page 170
10.2.1 Series Capacitor on Distribution Systems......Page 171
10.2.2.1 Self-Sparking Gap Protection......Page 172
10.2.2.2 Triggered Gap and Varistor Protection......Page 173
10.2.2.4 Thyristor Protected Series Capacitor......Page 174
10.3 SERIES CAPACITORS FOR TRANSMISSION LINES......Page 177
10.4.1 Ferroresonance......Page 178
10.4.2 Hunting of Synchronous Motors......Page 179
Example 10.2......Page 180
Solution......Page 181
Example 10.3......Page 182
Solution......Page 183
10.5 OTHER SERIES CAPACITOR APPLICATIONS......Page 186
10.5.2 Series Capacitors for Induction Generator Applications......Page 187
10.5.3 Series Capacitor for Traction Applications......Page 188
Example 10.4......Page 189
10.5.5 Capacitors for Induction Heaters......Page 190
PROBLEMS......Page 191
REFERENCES......Page 192
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 194
11.2 INSULATION WITHSTAND STRENGTH......Page 195
11.3 SOURCES OF FAST FRONT SURGES......Page 198
11.4 THE PROTECTION SYSTEM......Page 199
Example 11.1......Page 200
11.4.1 Calculation of Peak Surge Voltage at the Motor......Page 202
Example 11.2......Page 204
11.5.2 Surge Capacitors for Circuit Breakers......Page 206
11.5.3 Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS) Capacitors......Page 207
PROBLEMS......Page 208
REFERENCES......Page 209
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 210
12.2 REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENTS......Page 211
12.3.1 Self-Excitation......Page 213
Example 12.1......Page 215
12.4.1 Location of Shunt Capacitors......Page 220
12.5 MOTOR STARTING AND RELATED ISSUES......Page 221
Example 12.2......Page 222
12.5.1 Motor Starting Using Shunt Capacitors [2,3]......Page 223
12.5.2 Starting Transients with Fixed Capacitors......Page 225
12.5.3 Starting Transients with Switched Capacitors......Page 226
12.5.4 Effect of Shunt Capacitors on the Motor Voltage and Current......Page 227
REFERENCES......Page 231
13.2 ELECTRIC ARC FURNANCE......Page 232
13.3 RESISTIVE SPOT WELDING......Page 234
13.4.1 Neon Lamps for Red Light......Page 237
13.4.2 Sodium Vapor Lamp......Page 238
13.4.3 Mercury Vapor Lamp......Page 239
13.5 CAPACITOR RUN SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS......Page 240
13.6.1 Ferroresonant Transformer......Page 242
13.6.2 Ferroresonant Inverter......Page 243
13.7.1 Transformer Pulse Generator......Page 244
13.7.2 Resonant Charge Transformer Circuit......Page 245
13.7.3 Pulsed Power Supply for Varistor Testing......Page 246
13.7.4 High Voltage Power Supply for Transformer Testing......Page 247
13.7.5 Power Supply for Circuit Breaker Testing......Page 248
13.8.1 Carrier Coupling Capacitor......Page 249
13.8.2 Line Trap Capacitors......Page 250
13.8.4 Capacitors for Laboratory Applications......Page 252
13.9 CAPACITORS FOR ENERGY STORAGE......Page 253
PROBLEMS......Page 254
REFERENCES......Page 255
14.2 COMPENSATION CONCEPTS......Page 256
14.3 EFFECT OF SHUNT COMPENSATION......Page 258
14.4.1 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) and Fixed Capacitor (FC)......Page 260
14.4.2 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) and Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)......Page 262
14.4.4 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)......Page 263
14.4.5 Microprocessor-Based Static VAR Controller......Page 265
14.4.6 STATCOM......Page 266
14.5.1 Harmonics......Page 268
Example 14.1......Page 269
Solution......Page 270
14.6.1 Power Oscillation Damping......Page 271
14.6.2 Improvement of the Transient Stability......Page 272
14.6.3 Voltage Support......Page 273
14.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 274
SVS Specifications......Page 275
REFERENCES......Page 276
15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 278
15.2 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION......Page 279
15.3 PROTECTION AGAINST RACK FAILURES......Page 280
15.4 UNBALANCE PROTECTION......Page 281
15.4.1 Scheme 1: Unbalance Relaying for Grounded Capacitor Banks......Page 282
15.4.2 Scheme 2: Summation of Intermediate Tap-Point Voltage; Grounded Wye Capacitor Banks......Page 284
15.4.3 Scheme 3: Neutral Current Differential Protection; Grounded Split-Wye Capacitor Banks......Page 285
15.4.4 Scheme 4: Voltage Differential Protection Method for Grounded Wye Capacitor Banks......Page 286
15.4.5 Scheme 5: Neutral Voltage Unbalance Protection Using Ungrounded Wye Connected Capacitor Banks......Page 287
15.4.7 Scheme 7: Neutral Voltage Unbalance Detection Method for Ungrounded Wye Capacitor Banks Using Three PTs......Page 289
15.4.8 Scheme 8: Neutral Current Unbalance Detection Method for Ungrounded Split-Wye Capacitor Banks......Page 290
15.4.10 Scheme 10: Neutral Voltage Unbalance Protection Method for Ungrounded Split-Wye Connected Capacitor Banks......Page 291
15.4.10.2 Voltage Differential Relays......Page 292
Solution......Page 293
REFERENCES......Page 295
16.2.1 Individual Fusing......Page 297
16.2.2 Group Fusing......Page 298
16.3.1 Expulsion Fuse......Page 299
16.3.2 Current Limiting Fuse......Page 301
16.4 SELECTION OF FUSE LINKS......Page 302
16.4.1 Continuous Current......Page 303
16.4.2 Voltage Rating......Page 304
Example 16.2......Page 305
16.4.5 Fault Current Magnitudes......Page 309
16.4.6 Transient Currents due to Back-to-Back Switching......Page 311
16.4.7 Case Rupture Characteristics......Page 312
16.4.9 Energy Discharge into Failed Capacitor Units......Page 313
16.4.11 Coordination with Unbalanced Detection Schemes......Page 314
16.5 EFFECT OF OPEN FUSES......Page 315
16.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 316
PROBLEMS......Page 317
REFERENCES......Page 318
17.2 TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS......Page 319
17.2.3 Circuit Breakers Based on Installations......Page 320
17.2.4 Circuit Breakers Based on Interrupting Medium......Page 321
17.2.4.2 Oil Circuit Breakers......Page 322
17.2.4.4 Vacuum Circuit Breakers......Page 323
17.2.4.5 Sulphur Hexafluoride ( SF6) Circuit Breakers......Page 324
17.3 CIRCUIT BREAKER RATINGS......Page 325
Solution......Page 326
17.3.6 Latching Current......Page 327
17.3.7 Rated Interrupting Time......Page 328
17.3.10 The Asymmetrical Breaking Current......Page 329
Solution......Page 330
17.4.1 Arc Phenomena and Arc Voltage......Page 331
17.4.2 Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV)......Page 332
17.4.3 Rate of Rise of Recovery Voltage (RRRV)......Page 333
17.5.1 Voltage Rating......Page 334
17.5.5 Back-to-Back Capacitor Banks......Page 335
17.5.6 Inrush Currents......Page 336
17.5.8 Additional Considerations in Transient Control during Capacitor Switching......Page 337
Example 17.4......Page 339
Solution......Page 340
17.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 342
PROBLEMS......Page 343
REFERENCES......Page 344
18.2 LIGHTNING SURGES......Page 346
18.3.1 Direct Lightning Strokes......Page 347
18.3.3 Multiple Strokes......Page 350
18.4 SURGE ARRESTERS......Page 351
18.4.1 Classes of Surge Arresters......Page 352
18.4.2 The Gas Insulated Surge Arresters......Page 354
18.4.3 Polymer Surge Arresters......Page 355
18.5.1 Rated Voltage......Page 356
18.5.3 Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage (MCOV)......Page 357
Solution......Page 359
18.5.4 Nominal Discharge Current......Page 360
18.5.8 Magnitude of Discharge Currents......Page 361
Solution......Page 362
18.6.3 Fault Clearing......Page 363
18.6.7 Prestrike......Page 364
18.6.10 Ferroresonance......Page 365
18.7.1 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL)......Page 366
18.7.3 Basic Switching Impulse Insulation Level (BSL)......Page 367
Solution......Page 369
18.7.4 Location of Surge Arrester......Page 370
18.7.4.1 Separation Effect......Page 371
Solution......Page 372
18.7.5 Effect of Transients on the Surge Arrester......Page 373
PROBLEMS......Page 374
REFERENCES......Page 375
19.2 MAINTENANCE......Page 376
19.2.1.3 Leaking from Capacitor Units......Page 377
Energization Procedures......Page 378
19.2.1.8 Physical Inspection and Measurements......Page 379
19.2.3 Measuring Techniques......Page 380
19.3 TROUBLESHOOTING......Page 383
Solution......Page 385
Solution......Page 386
Example 19.3......Page 393
Solution......Page 394
PROBLEMS......Page 395
REFERENCES......Page 397
20.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 398
20.2.1 Converters......Page 400
20.2.3 Cycloconverters......Page 401
20.2.5 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)......Page 402
20.3 SYSTEM RESPONSE TO HARMONICS......Page 403
20.3.4 Series Resonance......Page 404
20.4.2 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of the Voltage......Page 405
20.4.3 Total Demand Distortion (TDD)......Page 406
20.4.4 Frequency Domain Analysis......Page 407
20.4.5 Acceptable Capacitor Performance......Page 408
20.5.2 High-Pass Filter......Page 409
20.6 SYSTEM RESPONSE CONSIDERATIONS......Page 410
20.6.1 Resonance Problems......Page 411
20.6.3 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of the Voltage......Page 412
20.7 FILTER DESIGN......Page 414
Example 20.1......Page 417
Example 20.2......Page 419
20.7.1 Practical Filter Installations......Page 420
20.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 421
PROBLEMS......Page 422
REFERENCES......Page 423
21.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 424
21.2 TRANSFORMER CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION......Page 425
21.3 CAPACITOR SWITCHING AND TRANSFORMER TRANSIENTS......Page 428
21.4.1 Closing Resistors......Page 431
21.4.2 Controlled Closing......Page 432
21.4.3 Staggered Closing of the Circuit Breaker Contacts......Page 433
21.4.5 Surge Arresters......Page 434
21.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 435
REFERENCES......Page 436
22.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 438
22.2.1 Energization......Page 439
Solution......Page 440
22.2.2 De-Energization......Page 441
22.2.4 Reclosing......Page 442
22.2.5 Backup Fault Clearing......Page 443
22.2.6 Restriking......Page 444
22.2.7 Prestrike......Page 445
22.2.8 Back-to-Back Switching......Page 446
Bank Circuit......Page 448
22.2.9 Voltage Magnification......Page 449
22.2.10 Outrush Currents due to Close-In Faults......Page 451
22.2.11 Sustained Overvoltages......Page 453
22.3.1 Transient Overvoltage......Page 454
22.4 INSULATION COORDINATION......Page 455
22.4.1 The Surge Arrester Transient Overvoltage Capability and Protective Levels......Page 456
PROBLEMS......Page 457
REFERENCES......Page 458
23.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 460
23.2.1 Capacitive Coupling......Page 461
23.2.2 Inductive Coupling......Page 462
Example 23.1......Page 463
23.3 ACCEPTABLE INDUCED VOLTAGES......Page 464
23.4 EXAMPLE SYSTEM......Page 465
23.4.1 Circuit Breaker for Capacitance Switching......Page 466
23.5 CALCULATION OF INDUCED VOLTAGES......Page 467
23.6 EFFECT OF LIGHTNING ON CONTROL CABLES......Page 471
23.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 475
PROBLEMS......Page 476
REFERENCES......Page 477
24.2.1 Time Value of Money......Page 478
24.2.3 Annual Cash Flow Analysis......Page 479
24.2.4 Future Worth Value of Money......Page 480
Solution......Page 481
24.3 COST COMPONENTS......Page 482
24.3.1 Benefits Resulting from the Installation of Capacitor Banks......Page 483
24.4.3 Depreciation......Page 486
24.4.3.2 Sum of Years of Digit Method......Page 487
Solution......Page 488
Solution......Page 489
24.5 ECONOMIC EVALUATIONS......Page 490
24.5.1.1 Simple Payback Period......Page 491
24.5.1.1 Effect of Inflation on the Payback Period......Page 492
Example 24.7......Page 493
Solution......Page 494
Solution......Page 498
Solution......Page 499
Example 24.10......Page 500
24.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 501
PROBLEMS......Page 502
REFERENCES......Page 503
Appendix A CAPACITOR CIRCUITFUNDAMENTALS......Page 504
Example A.1......Page 506
Example A.4......Page 508
PROBLEM......Page 509
Background harmonic......Page 510
Circuit breaker......Page 511
Frequency response......Page 512
Lagging......Page 513
Overcurrent......Page 514
S......Page 515
Thyristor......Page 516
Zero sequence......Page 517
General Purpose Circuit Breakers......Page 518
REFERENCES......Page 523
Appendix D SURGE ARRESTER DATA......Page 534
REFERENCES......Page 538
E-1 EXPULSION FUSES......Page 539
REFERENCE......Page 544
General......Page 545
Power Capacitors for Harmonic Filters......Page 550
Series Capacitors......Page 552
Power System Capacitor Standards......Page 557