Power Plant Engineering

Cover
Brief Contents
Contents
1 Introduction to Power Plants
	Introduction to the sources of energy: conventional  and non-conventional principle of power generation
		1.1.1 Conventional Energy Sources
		1.1.2 Non-Conventional Energy Sources
	1.2 Factors affecting selection of site
		1.2.1 The Factors to be Considered for Site Selection of Steam Power Plants
		1.2.2 Factors Affecting Selection of Site for Hydro-Electric Power Plant
		1.2.3 Factors Affecting Selection of Site for a Nuclear Power Plant
	1.3 Principal types of power plants
	1.4 Present status and future trends
	1.5 Layout of steam, hydel, diesel, nuclear and gas turbine power plants
		1.5.1 Layout of Steam Turbine Plant
		1.5.2 Layout of Hydro-Electric Plant
		1.5.3 Plant Layout of Diesel Engine Plant
		1.5.4 Layout of a Nuclear Plant
		1.5.5 Layout of Gas Turbine Plant
	1.6 Combined power cycles – comparison and selection
	1.7 Merits of steam, gas, diesel, hydro and nuclear power plants
		1.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Gas Turbine Plant
		1.7.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Nuclear Plant
		1.7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Diesel Plants
		1.7.4 Advantages of Hydro-Electric Power Plants
	1.8 Resources and development of power in India
		1.8.1 Coal and Lignite
	1.9 Petroleum and natural gas
	1.10 Present status of power generation in India
	1.11 Role of private and government organization
	1.12 State-level scenario, load shedding
	1.13 Carbon credits
	1.14 Questions
		1.14.1 Objective Questions
		1.14.2 Review Questions
		1.14.3 References
2 Fuels and Combustion
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Classification of fuels and different types of fuels used for steam generation
		2.2.1 Solid Fuels
		2.2.2 Liquid Fuels
		2.2.3 Gaseous Fuels
		2.2.4 Nuclear Fuels
	2.3 Calorific values of fuels
		2.3.1 Higher Calorific Value and Lower Calorific Value of Fuels
		2.3.2 Experimental Procedure for Determining CV of Fuels
	2.4 Combustion of fuels
		2.4.1 Minimum Air Required per Kilogram of Liquid Fuel for Complete Combustion
		2.4.2 Minimum Air Required per Cubic Metre of Gaseous Fuel for Complete Combustion
		2.4.3 Combustion Equation for a Hydrocarbon Fuel
		2.4.4 Flue Gas Analysis
		2.4.5 Conversion of Gravimetric Analysis to Volumetric Analysis and Vice Versa
		2.4.6 Mass of Air Supplied per Kilogram of Fuel
		2.4.7 Carbon Burnt to CO2 and CO
		2.4.8 Excess Air Supplied
	2.5 Properties of coal, Indian coals
		2.5.1 Analysis of Coal
		2.5.2 Indian Coals
	2.6 Selection of coal in thermal power station
		2.6.1 Geological Resources of Coal in India
		2.6.2 Status of Coal Resources in India during the Past Five Years
	2.7 Questions
		2.7.1 Objective Questions
		2.7.2 Review Questions
3 Fuel-Handling Systems
	3.1 Coal handling
		3.1.1 Outplant Handling of Coal
		3.1.2 Storage of Coal
		3.1.3 Inplant Handling of Coal
		3.1.4 Inplant Handling System
		3.1.5 Stages of Coal Handling
	3.2 Choice of handling equipment
	3.3 Fuel burning
		3.3.1 Overfeed and Underfeed Fuel Bed Stokers
	3.4 Equipment for burning coal in lump form
		3.4.1 Chain Grate Stoker
		3.4.2 Travelling Grate Stoker
		3.4.3 Spreader Stoker
		3.4.4 Retort Stoker
	3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of stoker firing over pulverized system of firing
	3.6 Preparation and burning of pulverized coal
		3.6.1 Unit or Direct System
		3.6.2 Bin or Central System
		3.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Pulverized Coal Burning
	3.7 Pulverized fuel furnaces (burners)
	3.8 Pulverized mills
		3.8.1 Causes for Mill Fires
	3.9 Fuel-burning equipments
		3.9.1 Coal Burners
		3.9.2 Oil Burners
		3.9.3 Gas Burners
	3.10 Flue gas analysis
		3.10.1 Procedure
	3.11 Ash handling system
		3.11.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wet and Dry Ash-Handling Systems
	3.12 Dust collection
		3.12.l Mechanical Dust Collectors
		3.12.2 Electrical Dust Collector (Electrostatic Precipitators)
		3.12.3 Soot Blowers
	3.13 Questions
		3.13.1 Objective Questions
		3.13.2 Review Questions
4 Steam Power Plant
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 General layout of modern thermal power plant
	4.3 Rankine and modified rankine cycles
		4.3.1 Carnot Cycle
		4.3.2 Rankine Cycle
		4.3.3 Modified Rankine Cycle
		4.3.4 Reheat Cycle
		4.3.5 Regenerative Cycle
	4.4 Working of different circuits
	4.5 Selection of site for steam power plants
	4.6 Questions
		4.6.1 Objective Questions
		4.6.2 Review Questions
5 Steam Generator
	5.1 Fossil fuel steam generators
	5.2 Classification of boilers
		5.2.1 Fire Tube Boilers and Water Tube Boilers
		5.2.2 Stationary and Mobile Boilers
		5.2.3 Internally Fired and Externally Fired Boilers
		5.2.4 Horizontal, Vertical and Inclined Tube Boilers
		5.2.5 Based on Heat Sources
		5.2.6 Natural Circulation and Forced Circulation Boilers
		5.2.7 Comparison of Water Tube Boilers and Fire Tube Boilers
	5.3 Circulation in water tube boilers
	5.4 Modern high-pressure water tube boilers
		5.4.1 Generation of Steam Using Forced Circulation, High and Supercritical Pressures
		5.4.2 A Brief Account of Modern Steam Generators
	5.5 Boiler performance calculations
		5.5.1 Turbine Efficiency
		5.5.2 Rankine Cycle Efficiency (ηc)
		5.5.3 Generator Efficiency (ηg)
		5.5.4 Overall Turbo-Alternator Efficiency (ηota)
		5.5.5 Heat Rate
		5.5.6 Boiler Performance
	5.6 Accessories for the steam generator
		5.6.1 Superheaters Arrangement
		5.6.2 Control of Superheaters
		5.6.3 Reheaters
		5.6.4 Economizers
		5.6.5 Air Preheaters
	5.7 Boiler mountings
		5.7.1 Water-Level Indicator
		5.7.2 Pressure Gauge
		5.7.3 Steam Stop Valve or Junction Valve
		5.7.4 Feed Check Valve
		5.7.5 Blow-Down Valve or Blow-Off-Cock
		5.7.6 Fusible Plug
		5.7.7 Safety Valves
	5.8 Questions
		5.8.1 Objective Questions
		5.8.2 Review Questions
6 Fluidized Bed Combustion
	6.1 Introduction to fluidized bed combustion
	6.2 Regimes of combustion
	6.3 Fluidized bed boilers – classification
		6.3.1 Atmospheric FBC System or Bubbling FBC
		6.3.2 Circulating FBC
		6.3.3 Pressurized FBC System
	6.4 Advantages of fbc system
	6.5 Control of oxides of nitrogen
	6.6 Desulphurization technology
	6.7 Questions
		6.7.1 Objective Questions
		6.7.2 Review Questions
		6.7.3 References
7 Draught System
	7.1 Introduction to draught system
	7.2 Air and supply systems (natural mechanical draught systems)
	7.3 Chimneys
	7.4 Calculations involving height of chimney to produce a given draught
		7.4.1 Chimney Height and Diameter
		7.4.2 Condition for Maximum Discharge through a Chimney
		7.4.3 Chimney Efficiency
	7.5 Questions
		7.5.1 Objective Questions
		7.5.2 Review Questions
8 Feed Water Treatment
	8.1 Feed water system – necessity
		8.1.1 Feed Water Impurities
	8.2 Feed water treatment
		8.2.1 Mechanical Methods
		8.2.2 Thermal Methods
		8.2.3 Chemical Methods
	8.3 Questions
		8.3.1 Objective Questions
		8.3.2 Review Questions
9 Flow Through Nozzles
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Types of steam nozzles
	9.3 Flow of steam through nozzle
	9.4 Discharge through nozzle and critical pressure ratio
	9.5 Effect of friction and nozzle efficiency
	9.6 Supersaturated flow
	9.7 Relation between area, velocity and pressure in nozzle flow
	9.8 Characteristics of converging–diverging nozzle
	9.9 Steam injector
	9.10 Questions
		9.10.1 Objective Questions
		9.10.2 Review Questions
10 Steam Turbines
	10.1 Introduction to steam turbines
	10.2 Turbine types
		10.2.1 Impulse Turbine Working Principle
		10.2.2 Reaction Turbine
	10.3 Simple impulse turbines
		10.3.1 Flow Through Turbine Blades and Velocity Diagram
		10.3.2 Compounding of Steam Turbines
		10.3.3 Impulse Turbine Power and Related Calculations
		10.3.4 Multistage Impulse Turbine
	10.4 Reaction turbines
		10.4.1 Flow Through Blades and Velocity Diagram
		10.4.2 Degree of Reaction
		10.4.3 Parson’s Reaction Turbine
		10.4.4 Power and Related Calculations
		10.4.5 Blade Height Calculations
		10.4.6 Bleeding in Steam Turbines
	10.5 Losses in steam turbines
	10.6 Reheat factor and condition line
		10.6.1 Stage Efficiency per Stage
		10.6.2 Reheat Factor
	10.7 Governing of turbines
	10.8 Questions
		10.8.1 Objective Questions
		10.8.2 Review Questions
11 Steam Condenser and Circulating Water Systems
	11.1 Introduction to condenser and its necessity
		11.1.1 Function of a Condenser
		11.1.2 Elements of a Condensing Plant
	11.2 Classification and types of condensers
		11.2.1 Direct-Contact Condensers
		11.2.2 Surface Condensers
		11.2.3 Evaporative Condenser
	11.3 Surface condenser performance
		11.3.3 Vacuum and Vacuum Efficiency
	11.4 Cooling tower
		11.4.1 Types
		11.4.2 Principle of Operation and Performance
		11.4.3 Location of Cooling Tower
	11.5 Cooling ponds
		11.5.1 Cooling Pond
		11.5.2 Types of Cooling Ponds
	11.6 Corrosion in condensers and boilers
	11.7 Corrosion in boilers
		11.7.1 Acidic Corrosion
		11.7.2 Galvanic Corrosion
		11.7.3 Steam Blanketing
		11.7.4 Oxygen Attack
		11.7.5 Carbon Dioxide Attack
	11.8 Questions
		11.8.1 Objective Questions
		11.8.2 Review Questions
12 Gas TurbinePower Plant
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Joule or Brayton Cycle
	12.2 Classification of gas turbines
		12.2.1 Principle of Working of Open- and Closed-Cycle Gas Turbines
		12.2.2 Comparison of Open and Closed-Cycle Turbines
	12.3 Construction and plant layout with auxiliaries
		12.3.1 Components of a Gas Turbine
		12.3.2 Centrifugal Compressor
		12.3.3 Main Parts of a Centrifugal Compressor
		12.3.4 Impeller and Diffuser
		12.3.5 Diffuser
		12.3.6 Axial Centrifugal Compressor
		12.3.7 Stage Velocity Triangles
		12.3.8 Work Input to Compressor
		12.3.9 Work Done Factor
		12.3.10 Degree of Reaction
	12.4 Fuel and fuel systems
		12.4.1 Natural Gas
		12.4.2 Liquefied Natural Gas
		12.4.3 Liquid Fuels
	12.5 Gas turbine material
	12.6 Advantages and disadvantages of the gas turbine plant
		12.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Plant
	12.7 Method of improving output and performance
		12.7.1 Reheating
		12.7.2 Regeneration
		12.7.3 Intercooling
	12.8 Free-piston engine plant – limitation, application and advantages
	12.9 Combined cycle power plants and comparison
		12.9.1 Combined Cycle Principles of Operation
		12.9.2 Coupled Cycle – GT–ST Plant Operation
		12.9.3 Thermodynamic Analysis of a Simple Combined Cycle GT–ST Plant
	12.10 Layout of gas turbine plant
	12.11 Questions
		12.11.1 Objective Questions
		12.11.2 Review Questions
		12.11.3 References
13 Diesel Engine Power Plant
	13.1 Introduction to diesel engine plant
		13.1.1 IC Engine Nomenclature
		13.1.2 Standard Terminology
		13.1.3 Four-Stroke Diesel Engine
		13.1.4 Two-Stroke Diesel Engine
	13.2 Types of diesel plants and components
	13.3 Selection of engine type and engine size
	13.4 Plant layout with auxiliaries
	13.5 Fuel supply system
		13.5.1 Fuel Injection System
		13.5.2 Types of Fuel Injection Systems
	13.6 Super charging
	13.7 Method of starting diesel engines
	13.8 Cooling and lubrication system for the diesel engine
		13.8.1 Engine Cooling System
		13.8.2 Lubrication System
		13.8.3 Filters, Centrifuges and Oil Heaters
	13.9 Intake and exhaust systems
		13.9.1 Intake System
		13.9.2 Exhaust System
	13.10 Application of diesel power plant, advantages and disadvantages
		13.10.1 Comparison with Stream Power Plants
	13.11 Layout of diesel plant
	13.12 Diesel engine performance and operation
	13.13 Questions
		13.13.1 Review Questions
14 Power from Non-Conventional Sources
	14.1 Recent developments in methods of power generation
		14.1.1 Conventional Energy Sources
		14.1.2 Non-Conventional Energy Sources
	14.2 Utilization of solar energy
		14.2.1 Solar Radiation
		14.2.2 Solar Radiation at Earth’s Surface
		14.2.3 Basic Definitions of Solar Angles
		14.2.4 Solar Constant and Intensity of Solar Radiation
		14.2.5 Average Solar Radiation or Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation
		14.2.6 Solar Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
		14.2.7 Solar Energy Collectors
		14.2.8 Photovoltaic Power System
		14.2.9 Solar Central Receiver System
	14.3 Wind energy
		14.3.1 Generation of Wind Energy
		14.3.2 Wind Turbine Operation
		14.3.3 Components of a Wind Generator
		14.3.4 Velocity and Power from Wind
		14.3.5 Wind Turbine Operation
		14.3.6 Horizontal and Vertical Axis (HAWT, VAWT) Wind Mills
		14.3.7 Aerodynamic Considerations of Wind Mill Design
		14.3.8 Coefficient of Performance of Wind Mill Rotor
		14.3.9 Availability of Wind Energy in India
		14.3.10 Wind Power by Country
	14.4 Tidal energy
		14.4.1 The Simple Single Pool Tidal System
		14.4.2 The Modulated Single Pool Tidal System
		14.4.3 The Two-Pool Tidal System
	14.5 Ocean thermal energy conversion
		14.5.1 Principle of Working
		14.5.2 Ocean Temperature Differences
		14.5.3 The Open or Claude Cycle
		14.5.4 The Closed or Anderson OTEC Cycle
	14.6 Wave energy
		14.6.1 Energy and Power from Waves
		14.6.2 Wave Energy Conversion by Floats
		14.6.3 High-Pressure Accumulator Wave Machines
	14.7 Fuel cells
		14.7.1 Working Principle
		14.7.2 Types of Fuel Cells
	14.8 Thermoelectric and thermionic power
		14.8.1 Thermoelectric Power
		14.8.2 Thermionic Converter
	14.9 Mhd generation
	14.10 Geothermal energy
		14.10.1 A Typical Geothermal Field
		14.10.2 Hydrothermal Systems
		14.10.3 Petro Thermal Systems
		14.10.4 Hybrid Geothermal Fossil Systems
		14.10.5 Problems Associated with Geothermal Conversion
	14.11 Electricity from city refuge
	14.12 Questions
		14.12.1 Objective Questions
		14.12.2 Review Questions
15 Hydroelectric Power Plant
	15.1 Introduction to water power
	15.2 Hydrological cycle
	15.3 Rainfall and its measurement
		15.3.1 Intensity of Rainfall
		15.3.2 Measurement of Rainfall
		15.3.3 Location of Rain Gauge
		15.3.4 Average or Mean Depth of Rainfall
		15.3.5 Run-off and its Measurement
	15.4 Hydrographs
		15.4.1 The Unit Hydrograph
	15.5 Flow duration and mass duration curves
		15.5.1 Flow Duration Curve
		15.5.2 Mass Curve and Storage
	15.6 Hydro electric plant – introduction
		15.6.1 Site Selection for Hydel Power Plants
		15.6.2 General Arrangement of Hydroelectric Power Plant
		15.6.3 Plant Layout
		15.6.4 Penstock and Water Hammer
		15.6.5 Specific Speed and Capacity Calculations
	15.7 Classification of hydro-plant
		15.7.1 Low-, Medium- and High-Head Plants
		15.7.2 Pumped Storage Plant
		15.7.3 Run-Off River Power Plant
	15.8 Surge tanks
	15.9 Control gates and valves
		15.9.1 Control Gates
		15.9.2 Interior Gate Valves
	15.10 Classification of dams and spillways
	15.11 Brief description of some of the important hydel installations in India
	15.12 Water turbines
		15.12.1 Selection of Turbines
		15.12.2 Classification and Types of Water Turbines
	15.13 Micro hydel developments
	15.14 Project cost of hydroelectric plant
	15.15 Advantages of hydro-power plant
	15.16 Questions
		15.16.1 Review Questions
16 Nuclear Power Plants
	16.1 Introduction to nuclear engineering
		16.1.1 Atomic Structure
		16.1.2 Some Definitions
	16.2 Radioactive decay, half life
		16.2.1 Radioactive Decay
		16.2.2 Half-Life
	16.3 Principles of release of nuclear energy
		16.3.1 Fusion and Fission Reactions
		16.3.2 Breeding and Fertile Materials
		16.3.3 Nuclear Fuels Used in the Reactors
		16.3.4 Multiplication and Thermal Utilization Factors
		16.3.5 Life Cycle of a Neutron
	16.4 Nuclear reactor components
	16.5 Classification of nuclear reactors
	16.6 Thermal fission reactors and power plant and their location
		16.6.1 Pressurized Water Reactor
		16.6.2 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
		16.6.3 CANDU Heavy Water Reactor
		16.6.4 Gas-Cooled Reactor
		16.6.5 Fast Breeder Reactors
		16.6.6 Organic Substance Cooled Reactor
	16.7 Reactor control
	16.8 Radiation hazards
		16.8.1 Handling of Nuclear Waste and Safety Measures
		16.8.2 Radioactive Waste Disposal
	16.9 Nuclear power generation in India
	16.10 Questions
		16.10.1 Objective Questions
		16.10.2 Review Questions
17 Power Plant Economics
	17.1 Introduction and basic definitions
	17.2 Types of loads
		17.2.1 Load Curves
		17.2.2 Drawing Load Duration Curve
		17.2.3 Effect of Variable Load on Power Plant Design and Operation
		17.2.4 Methods to Meet Variable Load
		17.2.5 Prediction of Future Loads
	17.3 Terminology used in power supply
	17.4 Cost of electrical energy
		17.4.1 Depreciation
	17.5 Energy rates (tariffs) for electrical energy
		17.5.1 Different Types of Tariffs
	17.6 Selection of types of generation and generating equipment
		17.6.1 Steam Power Plants
		17.6.2 Diesel Engine Plants
		17.6.3 Gas Turbine Power Plant
		17.6.4 Hydro-Electric Power Plant
	17.7 Selection of the number and size of units
	17.8 Factors affecting economics of generation and distribution of power
	17.9 Planning for power generation in India (source: kpmg India)
	17.10 Power achievement, target v/s achieved
	17.11 Questions
		17.11.1 Objective Questions
		17.11.2 Review Questions
18 Environmental Aspects of Power Station
	18.1 Environmental aspects
		18.1.1 Constituents of the Atmosphere
		18.1.2 Different Pollutants Due to Thermal Power Plant and Their Effect on Human Health
		18.1.3 Environmental Control of Different Pollutants Such as Particulate Matter PM
		18.1.4 Oxides of Sulphur
		18.1.5 Oxides of Nitrogen
		18.1.6 Oxides of Carbon
	18.2 Global warming and green house effect
	18.3 Thermal pollution of water and its control
	18.4 Acid precipitation – acid rain and acid snow
	18.5 Effluents from power plants and impact on environment
		18.5.1 Radiation from Nuclear Power Plant Effluents
		18.5.2 Pollution Standards
		18.5.3 Methods of Pollution Control
	Environmental impact of power plant: social and economical issues of the power plants
		18.6.1 Land and Air Space
		18.6.2 Water
		18.6.3 Solid Waste
		18.6.4 Construction and Operation
		18.6.5 Noise
		18.6.6 Economical Aspects
	18.7 Questions
		18.7.1 Objective Questions
		18.7.2 Review Questions
		18.7.3 References
19 Instrumentation and Equipments in Power Station
	19.1 Elements of instrumentation
		19.1.1 Process Control System
		19.1.2 Operational Monitoring System
		19.1.3 Automatic Generation Control System
		19.1.4 Load Frequency Control System
		19.1.5 Power Plant Maintenance
		19.1.6 Plant Monitoring System
	19.2 Important instruments on steam generator and turbine
		19.2.1 Drum Water-Level Control
	19.3 Combustion control
		19.3.1 Super Heat Temperature Control
	19.4 Introduction to generator and exciters
		19.4.1 The Elementary AC Generator
		19.4.2 Development of the Sine Wave
		19.4.3 Types of Generators
		19.4.4 Generator Parts and Function
		19.4.5 The Exciter
	19.5 Earthing of power system
	19.6 Power and unit transformer
	19.7 Circuit breakers
	19.8 Protective equipments
	19.9 Control board equipment
		19.9.1 Control Room Instrumentation
	19.10 Switch gear for power station auxiliaries
	19.11 Testing of power plants and heat balance
		19.11.1 British Standards, BS845: 1987
		19.11.2 ASME Standard: PTC-4-1 Power Test Code for Steam Generating Units
		19.11.3 IS 8753: Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing
		19.11.4 The Indirect Method Testing
		19.11.5 Energy Balance Sheet
	19.12 Questions
		19.12.1 Objective Questions
		19.12.2 Review Questions
		19.12.3 References
Index